title: Eating frequency in relation to body mass index and waist circumference in British adults.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Inconsistent associations between eating frequency (EF) and adiposity may be mainly due to measurement errors of EF.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This cross-sectional study examined the association of EF with body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference (WC), by focusing on the confounding of energy misreporting and the effect of exclusion of underreporters (URs).
  
  
  METHODS
  Dietary intake was assessed using a 7-day weighed dietary record in 1487 British adults aged 19-64 years. EF was calculated based on all eating occasions (EF(all)), after excluding those providing no energy (EF(energy)), and after excluding those providing <210 kJ of energy (EF(⩾210 kJ)). Energy misreporting was assessed as reported energy intake divided by estimated energy requirement (EI:EER).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The mean values (1st and 99th percentiles) of EF(all), EF(energy) and EF(⩾210 kJ) were, respectively, 7.8 (3.1, 15.3), 7.2 (2.9, 12.7), and 5.6 (2.3, 10.7) times/day in men and 7.6 (3.0, 13.9), 6.7 (2.7, 12.1), and 4.8 (1.9, 9.1) times/day in women. In the univariate analyses of the entire male population, EF(⩾210 kJ), but not EF(all) and EF(energy), was inversely associated with BMI and WC. After full adjustment (including EI:EER), all three measures of EF were positively associated with BMI and WC. In the univariate analyses of the entire female population, all three measures of EF were inversely associated with BMI and WC. After full adjustment, EF(⩾210 kJ) was positively associated with BMI and WC while EF(all) and EF(energy) showed null associations. When URs (EI:EER <0.665) were excluded, the multivariate analyses showed that EF(all) and EF(energy) were positively associated with BMI in men while EF(⩾210 kJ) was positively associated with BMI and WC in both sexes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We showed positive associations of EF with BMI and WC. Adjustment for EI:EER and the exclusion of URs, as well as definitions of EF, radically affected the results of the analysis.
authors.affiliation: 1] Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health (NICHE), University of Ulster, Coleraine, UK [2] JSPS Postdoctoral Fellow for Research Abroad, Japan Society for the Promotion of Science, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Murakami
authors.affiliation: Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health (NICHE), University of Ulster, Coleraine, UK.
authors.forename: M B E
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Livingstone
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015992:Body Mass Index; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D015930:Diet Records; D002149:Energy Intake; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009043:Motor Activity; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D009790:Occupations; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013997:Time Factors; D006113:United Kingdom / Q000453:epidemiology; D055105:Waist Circumference