title: Shift from bird to butterfly pollination in Clivia (Amaryllidaceae).
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Pollinator shifts have been implicated as a driver of divergence in angiosperms. We tested the hypothesis that there was a transition from bird- to butterfly pollination in the African genus Clivia (Amaryllidaceae) and investigated how floral traits may have been either modified or retained during this transition.
  
  
  METHODS
  We identified pollinators using field observations, correlations between lepidopteran wing scales and pollen on stigmas, and single-visit and selective exclusion experiments. We also quantified floral rewards and advertising traits.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The upright trumpet-shaped flowers of C. miniata were found to be pollinated effectively by swallowtail butterflies during both nectar-feeding and brush visits. These butterflies transfer pollen on their wings, as evidenced by positive correlations between wing scales and pollen loads on stigmas. All other Clivia species have narrow pendulous flowers that are visited by sunbirds. Selective exclusion of birds and large butterflies from flowers of two Clivia species resulted in a significant decline in seed production.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  From the distribution of pollination systems on available phylogenies, it is apparent that a shift took place from bird- to butterfly pollination in Clivia. This shift was accompanied by the evolution of trumpet-shaped flowers, smaller nectar volume, and emission of scent, while flower color and nectar chemistry do not appear to have been substantially modified. These results are consistent with the idea that pollinator shifts can explain major floral modifications during plant diversification.
authors.affiliation: School of Life Sciences, University of KwaZulu-Natal, P Bag X01, Scottsville, Pietermaritzburg, 3209, South Africa.
authors.forename: Ian
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Kiepiel
authors.forename: Steven D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Johnson
mesh_terms: D000349:Africa; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000502:physiology; D001717:Birds / Q000502:physiology*; D002080:Butterflies / Q000502:physiology*; D005298:Fertility / Q000502:physiology; D019668:Liliaceae / Q000502:physiology*; D011058:Pollen / Q000502:physiology; D054817:Pollination / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Bird pollination; butterfly pollination; floral scent; nectar chemistry; pollen; pollination syndrome; pollinator shift; scent; spectral reflectance