title: Status and ecological effects of the world's largest carnivores.
abstract: Large carnivores face serious threats and are experiencing massive declines in their populations and geographic ranges around the world. We highlight how these threats have affected the conservation status and ecological functioning of the 31 largest mammalian carnivores on Earth. Consistent with theory, empirical studies increasingly show that large carnivores have substantial effects on the structure and function of diverse ecosystems. Significant cascading trophic interactions, mediated by their prey or sympatric mesopredators, arise when some of these carnivores are extirpated from or repatriated to ecosystems. Unexpected effects of trophic cascades on various taxa and processes include changes to bird, mammal, invertebrate, and herpetofauna abundance or richness; subsidies to scavengers; altered disease dynamics; carbon sequestration; modified stream morphology; and crop damage. Promoting tolerance and coexistence with large carnivores is a crucial societal challenge that will ultimately determine the fate of Earth's largest carnivores and all that depends upon them, including humans.
authors.affiliation: Trophic Cascades Program, Department of Forest Ecosystems and Society, Oregon State University, Corvallis, OR 97331, USA.
authors.forename: William J
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Ripple
authors.forename: James A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Estes
authors.forename: Robert L
authors.initials: RL
authors.lastname: Beschta
authors.forename: Christopher C
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Wilmers
authors.forename: Euan G
authors.initials: EG
authors.lastname: Ritchie
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hebblewhite
authors.forename: Joel
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Berger
authors.forename: Bodil
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Elmhagen
authors.forename: Mike
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Letnic
authors.forename: Michael P
authors.initials: MP
authors.lastname: Nelson
authors.forename: Oswald J
authors.initials: OJ
authors.lastname: Schmitz
authors.forename: Douglas W
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.forename: Arian D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Wallach
authors.forename: Aaron J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Wirsing
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002335:Carnivora / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000145:classification / Q000502:physiology; D055669:Ecological and Environmental Phenomena; D017753:Ecosystem; D053476:Extinction, Biological; D006801:Humans; D008461:Meat Products / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D009792:Oceans and Seas; D010944:Plants; D011157:Population Dynamics