title: GMP cryopreservation of large volumes of cells for regenerative medicine: active control of the freezing process.
abstract: Cryopreservation protocols are increasingly required in regenerative medicine applications but must deliver functional products at clinical scale and comply with Good Manufacturing Process (GMP). While GMP cryopreservation is achievable on a small scale using a Stirling cryocooler-based controlled rate freezer (CRF) (EF600), successful large-scale GMP cryopreservation is more challenging due to heat transfer issues and control of ice nucleation, both complex events that impact success. We have developed a large-scale cryocooler-based CRF (VIA Freeze) that can process larger volumes and have evaluated it using alginate-encapsulated liver cell (HepG2) spheroids (ELS). It is anticipated that ELS will comprise the cellular component of a bioartificial liver and will be required in volumes of ∼2 L for clinical use. Sample temperatures and Stirling cryocooler power consumption was recorded throughout cooling runs for both small (500 μL) and large (200 mL) volume samples. ELS recoveries were assessed using viability (FDA/PI staining with image analysis), cell number (nuclei count), and function (protein secretion), along with cryoscanning electron microscopy and freeze substitution techniques to identify possible injury mechanisms. Slow cooling profiles were successfully applied to samples in both the EF600 and the VIA Freeze, and a number of cooling and warming profiles were evaluated. An optimized cooling protocol with a nonlinear cooling profile from ice nucleation to -60°C was implemented in both the EF600 and VIA Freeze. In the VIA Freeze the nucleation of ice is detected by the control software, allowing both noninvasive detection of the nucleation event for quality control purposes and the potential to modify the cooling profile following ice nucleation in an active manner. When processing 200 mL of ELS in the VIA Freeze-viabilities at 93.4% ± 7.4%, viable cell numbers at 14.3 ± 1.7 million nuclei/mL alginate, and protein secretion at 10.5 ± 1.7 μg/mL/24 h were obtained which, compared well with control ELS (viability -98.1% ± 0.9%; viable cell numbers -18.3 ± 1.0 million nuclei/mL alginate; and protein secretion -18.7 ± 1.8 μg/mL/24 h). Large volume GMP cryopreservation of ELS is possible with good functional recovery using the VIA Freeze and may also be applied to other regenerative medicine applications.
authors.affiliation: 1 UCL Institute for Liver and Digestive Health-Liver Group, University College Medical School , London, United Kingdom .
authors.forename: Isobel
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Massie
authors.forename: Clare
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Selden
authors.forename: Humphrey
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Hodgson
authors.forename: Barry
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Fuller
authors.forename: Stephanie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gibbons
authors.forename: G John
authors.initials: GJ
authors.lastname: Morris
mesh_terms: D018914:Cells, Immobilized / Q000166:cytology; D015925:Cryopreservation / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards*; D005240:Feasibility Studies; D005615:Freezing; D056945:Hep G2 Cells; D022781:Hepatocytes / Q000166:cytology*; D006801:Humans; D044968:Regenerative Medicine / Q000379:methods*; D018874:Spheroids, Cellular / Q000166:cytology / Q000648:ultrastructure