Density, destinations or both? A comparison of measures of walkability in relation to transportation behaviors, obesity and diabetes in Toronto, Canada.
The design of suburban communities encourages car dependency and discourages walking, characteristics that have been implicated in the rise of obesity. Walkability measures have been developed to capture these features of urban built environments. Our objective was to examine the individual and combined associations of residential density and the presence of walkable destinations, two of the most commonly used and potentially modifiable components of walkability measures, with transportation, overweight, obesity, and diabetes. We examined associations between a previously published walkability measure and transportation behaviors and health outcomes in Toronto, Canada, a city of 2.6 million people in 2011. Data sources included the Canada census, a transportation survey, a national health survey and a validated administrative diabetes database. We depicted interactions between residential density and the availability of walkable destinations graphically and examined them statistically using general linear modeling. Individuals living in more walkable areas were more than twice as likely to walk, bicycle or use public transit and were significantly less likely to drive or own a vehicle compared with those living in less walkable areas. Individuals in less walkable areas were up to one-third more likely to be obese or to have diabetes. Residential density and the availability of walkable destinations were each significantly associated with transportation and health outcomes. The combination of high levels of both measures was associated with the highest levels of walking or bicycling (p<0.0001) and public transit use (p<0.0026) and the lowest levels of automobile trips (p<0.0001), and diabetes prevalence (p<0.0001). We conclude that both residential density and the availability of walkable destinations are good measures of urban walkability and can be recommended for use by policy-makers, planners and public health officials. In our setting, the combination of both factors provided additional explanatory power.
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Department of Family and Community Medicine, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Richard H
RH
Glazier
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Maria I
MI
Creatore
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Jonathan T
JT
Weyman
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Ghazal
G
Fazli
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Dalla Lana School of Public Health, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Flora I
FI
Matheson
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Peter
P
Gozdyra
Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Department of Family and Community Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Rahim
R
Moineddin
Vered
V
Kaufman-Shriqui
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Vered Kaufman
VK
Shriqui
Li Ka Shing Knowledge Institute, St. Michael's Hospital, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Institute for Clinical Evaluative Sciences, Toronto, Ontario, Canada ; Department of Medicine, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Gillian L
GL
Booth
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001519:Behavior; D001642:Bicycling; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003920:Diabetes Mellitus / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009765:Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D009864:Ontario / Q000453:epidemiology; D011156:Population Density; D014186:Transportation / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D016138:Walking; D055815:Young Adult