Toxic metal levels in children residing in a smelting craft village in Vietnam: a pilot biomonitoring study.
BACKGROUND
In Vietnam, environmental pollution caused by small-scale domestic smelting of automobile batteries into lead ingot is a growing concern. The village of Nghia Lo is a smelting craft village located roughly 25 km southeast of Hanoi in the Red River Delta. Despite the concern of toxic metal exposure in the village, biomonitoring among susceptible populations, such as children, has not been previously conducted. The aim of this study was to determine the body burden of toxic metals in children residing in a smelting craft village.


METHODS
Twenty children from Nghia Lo, Vietnam, ages 18 months to four years were selected for capillary whole blood and toenail biomonitoring. Whole blood lead levels (BLLs) were measured using a portable lead analyzer, and toenail levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, and mercury were analyzed with inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry.


RESULTS
The findings show that all of the 20 children had detectable BLLs, and every child had levels that exceeded the Centers for Disease Control and Prevention guideline level of 5 μg/dL. Eighty percent of tested subjects had BLLs higher than 10 μg/dL. Five children (25%) had BLLs greater than 45 μg/dL, the level of recommended medical intervention. In addition to blood lead, all of the children had detectable levels of arsenic, cadmium, chromium, lead, manganese, and mercury in toenail samples. Notably, average toenail lead, manganese, and mercury levels were 157 μg/g, 7.41 μg/g, and 2.63 μg/g respectively, well above levels previously reported in children. Significant Spearman's rank correlations showed that there were relationships between blood and toenail lead levels (r = 0.65, p < 0.05), toenail levels of lead and cadmium (r = 0.66, p < 0.05), and toenail levels of manganese and chromium (r = 0.72, p < 0.001). Linear regression showed that reducing the distance to the nearest active smelter by half was associated with a 116% increase in BLL (p < 0.05).


CONCLUSIONS
The results suggest that children in battery recycling and smelting craft villages in Vietnam are co-exposed to toxic metals. There is an urgent need for mitigation to control metal exposure related to domestic smelting.
Alison P
AP
Sanders
Sloane K
SK
Miller
Viet
V
Nguyen
Jonathan B
JB
Kotch
Department of Environmental Sciences and Engineering, Gillings School of Global Public Health, University of North Carolina - Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, North Carolina, USA. rfry@unc.edu.
Rebecca C
RC
Fry
D001151:Arsenic / Q000097:blood; D002675:Child, Preschool; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000097:blood*; D019652:Extraction and Processing Industry; D005260:Female; D000075322:Heavy Metal Poisoning; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D019216:Metals, Heavy / Q000032:analysis / Q000097:blood*; D010865:Pilot Projects; D011041:Poisoning; D014744:Vietnam
D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D019216:Metals, Heavy; D001151:Arsenic