title: Differences in sociodemographic, drug use and health characteristics between never, former and current injecting, problematic hard-drug users in the Netherlands.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Injecting drug users are at increased risk for harmful effects compared to non-injecting drug users. Some studies have focused on differences in characteristics between these two groups (e.g., housing, overall health). However, no study has investigated the specific Dutch situation which in the last years has seen a decrease in homelessness among problematic hard-drug users and an increasing focus on physical health in low-threshold addiction care. The purpose of this study was to determine differences in sociodemographic, drug use and health characteristics between never-injecting (NIDUs), former-injecting (FIDUs) and current-injecting drug users (IDUs) and describe injecting practices.
  
  
  METHODS
  A total of 202 problematic hard-drug users (NIDU = 64; FIDU = 76; IDU = 62) were recruited from 22 low-threshold care facilities, including drug consumption rooms, methadone maintenance treatment, heroin-assisted therapy, day shelter and/or night shelter, supported housing and day activity centres. Data were collected on-site through structured face-to-face interviews.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results indicate that IDUs represented a separate group of problematic hard-drug users, with distinct sociodemographic and drug use characteristics. Overall, IDUs appeared to be the group with least favourable characteristics (unstable housing/homelessness, illegal activities, polydrug use) and NIDUs appeared to have the most favourable characteristics (stable housing, help with debts, less polydrug use). The FIDU group lies somewhere in between. The three groups did not differ significantly in terms of health. Regarding injecting practices, results showed that majority of IDUs had injected drugs for over 10 years and IDUs injected heroin, cocaine, amphetamine and/or methadone in the past 6 months. Sharing syringes was not common. A quarter reported public injecting.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Unstable housing and homelessness are related to (former) injecting drug use, and stable housing is related to never-injecting drug use. Our study suggests that the number of 'new' IDUs is low. However, public injecting among IDUs is not uncommon and is associated with unstable housing. This emphasizes the potential of housing projects as a component of harm reduction measures. Therefore, prevention of (risks associated with) injecting drug use and supported housing programmes for problematic hard-drug users deserve the continuous attention of policymakers and professionals in low-threshold addiction care.
authors: Petra
authors: P
authors: Havinga
authors: Claudia
authors: C
authors: van der Velden
authors: Anouk
authors: A
authors: de Gee
authors: Network of Infectious Diseases and Harm Reduction, Trimbos Institute, P,O, Box 725, Utrecht 3500, AS, The Netherlands. apoel@trimbos.nl.
authors: Agnes
authors: A
authors: van der Poel
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D005260:Female; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; D006304:Health Status; D006703:Ill-Housed Persons / Q000523:psychology / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D016485:Needle Sharing; D009426:Netherlands / Q000453:epidemiology; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D015819:Substance Abuse, Intravenous / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology; D055815:Young Adult