title: Association between carbohydrate quality and inflammatory markers: systematic review of observational and interventional studies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Chronic low-grade inflammation is a likely intermediary between quality of carbohydrate and chronic disease risk.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We conducted a systematic literature search to evaluate the relevance of carbohydrate quality on inflammatory markers in observational and intervention studies.
  
  
  METHODS
  MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Library were searched for studies on associations between glycemic index (GI), glycemic load (GL), dietary fiber or fiber supplements or whole grain intake, and high-sensitivity C-reactive protein (hsCRP) or interleukin 6 (IL-6). Included studies had to be conducted on adults (healthy, overweight, with type 2 diabetes or metabolic syndrome features, but without inflammatory disease) with ≥20 participants and a 3-wk duration.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In total, 22 of the 60 studies that met our inclusion criteria examined GI/GL: 5 of 9 observational studies reported lower concentrations of hsCRP or IL-6 among persons with a lower dietary GI/GL; 3 of 13 intervention studies showed significant antiinflammatory effects of a low-GI/GL diet, and 4 further studies suggested beneficial effects (trends or effects in a subgroup). For fiber intake, 13 of 16 observational studies reported an inverse relation with hsCRP or IL-6, but only 1 of 11 intervention studies showed a significant antiinflammatory effect of fiber intake, and a further trial reported a beneficial trend. For whole-grain intake, 6 of 7 observational studies observed an inverse association with inflammatory markers, but only 1 of 7 intervention studies reported significant antiinflammatory effects, 1 further study was suggestive (in a subgroup) of such, and another study found an adverse effect (trend only).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Evidence from intervention studies for antiinflammatory benefits is less consistent for higher-fiber or whole-grain diets than for low-GI/GL diets. Benefits of higher fiber and whole-grain intakes suggested by observational studies may reflect confounding.
authors.affiliation: From IEL-Nutritional Epidemiology, University of Bonn, DONALD Study at the Research Institute of Child Nutrition, Dortmund, Germany (AEB, JG, GJ, and AF); Sichuan University, Chengdu, PR China (GC); the Institute for Clinical Diabetology, German Diabetes Center, Leibniz Center for Diabetes Research at Heinrich Heine University Düsseldorf, Düsseldorf, Germany (CH); and the Boden Institute of Obesity, Nutrition, Exercise and Eating Disorders and Department of Molecular Bioscience, University of Sydney, Sydney, Australia (JCB-M).
authors.forename: Anette E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Buyken
authors.forename: Janina
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Goletzke
authors.forename: Gesa
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Joslowski
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Felbick
authors.forename: Guo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Cheng
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Herder
authors.forename: Jennie C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Brand-Miller
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002097:C-Reactive Protein / Q000032:analysis; D002908:Chronic Disease / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004043:Dietary Fiber / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D002523:Edible Grain / Q000737:chemistry; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D005511:Food Handling; D038321:Glycemic Index; D006293:Health Promotion; D006801:Humans; D018836:Inflammation Mediators / Q000097:blood*; D015850:Interleukin-6 / Q000097:blood; D064887:Observational Studies as Topic; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012307:Risk Factors
chemical_list: D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004043:Dietary Fiber; C508600:IL6 protein, human; D018836:Inflammation Mediators; D015850:Interleukin-6; D002097:C-Reactive Protein