title: A histological and functional study on hippocampal formation of normal and diabetic rats.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The hippocampus is a key brain area for many forms of learning and memory and is particularly sensitive to changes in glucose homeostasis.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To investigate in experimentally induced type 1 and 2 diabetes mellitus in rat model the effect of  diabetes mellitus on cognitive functions and related markers of hippocampal synaptic plasticity, and the possible impact of blocking N-methyl-D-aspartic acid (NMDA) receptors by memantine.
  
  
  METHODS
  Seven rat groups were included: non-diabetic control and non-diabetic receiving memantine; type-1 diabetic groups - untreated, treated with insulin alone and treated with insulin and memantine; and type 2 diabetic groups - untreated and memantine treated. Cognitive functions were assessed by the Morris Water Maze and passive avoidance test. Biochemical analysis was done for serum glucose, serum insulin and insulin resistance. Routine histological examination was done, together with immunohistochemistry for detection of the hippocampal learning and memory plasticity marker, namely activity regulated cytoskeletal-associated protein (Arc), and the astrocytes reactivity marker, namely glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both type 1 and 2 untreated diabetic groups showed significantly impaired cognitive performance compared to the non-diabetic group. Treating the type 1 diabetic group with insulin alone significantly improved cognitive performance, but significantly decreased GFAP and Arc compared to the untreated type 1 group. In addition, the type 2 diabetic groups showed a significant decrease in hippocampus GFAP and Arc compared to the non-diabetic groups. Blocking NMDA receptors by memantine significantly increased cognitive performance, GFAP and Arc in the type 1 insulin-memantine group compared to the type 1-insulin group and significantly increased Arc in the type 2-memantine group compared to the untreated type 2 diabetic group. The non-diabetic group receiving memantine was, however, significantly adversely affected.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cognitive functions are impaired in both types of diabetes mellitus and can be improved by blockage of NMDA receptors which may spark a future therapeutic role for these receptors in diabetes-associated cognitive dysfunction.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Kasr El Aini Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, 11451, Egypt.
authors.forename: Shaimaa N
authors.initials: SN
authors.lastname: Amin
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Kasr El Aini Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, 11451, Egypt.
authors.forename: Sandra M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Younan
authors.affiliation: Department of Histology, Kasr El Aini Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, 11451, Egypt.
authors.forename: Mira F
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Youssef
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, Kasr El Aini Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, 11451, Egypt.
authors.forename: Laila A
authors.initials: LA
authors.lastname: Rashed
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Kasr El Aini Faculty of Medicine, Cairo University, Cairo, 11451, Egypt.
authors.forename: Ibrahim
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Mohamady