title: Influence of adolescent heavy session drinking on the systemic and brain innate immune system.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The aim of the study was to evaluate rat models of intermittent alcohol abuse (heavy session/'heavy session' drinking) in relation to inflammatory changes in specific brain regions as well as in the periphery. Furthermore, the study was aimed to assess whether there are inflammatory changes in the blood of human intermittent alcohol abusers who might be associated with changes in neuronal circuitry in the brain, as assessed by functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI), which cause adverse effects on memory and learning.
  
  
  METHODS
  Various regimes of intermittent alcohol administration have been used in rat models, which vary with respect to the dose and duration of ethanol administration as well as the time of abstinence. Immunohistological methods were used to identify activated microglia in specific brain regions. The response of isolated alveolar macrophages to in vitro stimuli was assessed by the assay of nitric oxide and the pro-inflammatory cytokines IL-6 and TNFα. Blood samples were collected from university students who had been heavy session drinkers for 2 years to assess whether there was an inflammatory cytokine profile that correlated with cognitive test scores as well as fMRI findings.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The extent of microglia activation appears to depend on the doses and duration of ethanol administration. In addition, there is activation of phagocytic cells in the periphery, e.g. alveolar macrophages, in the rat models of heavy session drinking. Changes in the plasma levels of pro- and anti-inflammatory cytokines were present in heavy session drinking students, although no changes were identified in specific cognitive tests (which may be because of compensatory changes in the prefrontal cortex, as identified by fMRI).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Changes in the cytokine levels induced by intermittent ethanol abuse may provoke inflammatory pathways in specific brain regions, such as hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (particularly during the stage of active neurogenesis in the adolescent brain), which might induce cognitive impairment in susceptible individuals.
authors.affiliation: Corresponding author: Biologie du Comportement, Université Catholique de Louvain, Croix du Sud, 1 - box L7.04.03, 1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium. roberta.ward@uclouvain.be.
authors.forename: Roberta J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Ward
authors.forename: Frederic
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Lallemand
authors.forename: Philippe
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: de Witte
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D020268:Alcohol-Induced Disorders, Nervous System / Q000276:immunology*; D000435:Alcoholic Intoxication / Q000276:immunology*; D000818:Animals; D016207:Cytokines / Q000276:immunology; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D000431:Ethanol / Q000633:toxicity*; D006801:Humans; D007113:Immunity, Innate / Q000187:drug effects*; D007150:Immunohistochemistry; D017628:Microglia / Q000187:drug effects; D010586:Phagocytes / Q000187:drug effects; D051381:Rats; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines; D000431:Ethanol