title: Detection of prostate cancer by an electronic nose: a proof of principle study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We evaluate the ability of an electronic nose to discriminate prostate cancer from benign prostatic hyperplasia using urine headspace, potentially offering a clinically applicable noninvasive and rapid diagnostic method.
  
  
  METHODS
  The ChemPro® 100-eNose was used to discriminate prostate cancer from benign prostatic hyperplasia using urine sample headspace. Its performance was tested with 50 patients with confirmed prostate cancer and 24 samples from 15 patients with benign prostatic hyperplasia (15 patients provided urine preoperatively and 9 patients provided samples 3 months postoperatively) scheduled to undergo robotic assisted laparoscopic radical prostatectomy or transurethral resection of prostate, respectively. The patients provided urine sample preoperatively and those with benign prostatic hyperplasia also provided samples 3 months postoperatively to be used as a pooled control sample population. A discrimination classifier was identified for eNose and subsequently, sensitivity and specificity values were determined. Leave-one-out cross-validation was performed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Using leave-one-out cross-validation the eNose reached a sensitivity of 78%, a specificity of 67% and AUC 0.77.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The electronic nose is capable of rapidly and noninvasively discriminating prostate cancer and benign prostatic hyperplasia using urine headspace in patients undergoing surgery.
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland. Electronic address: antti.roine@uta.fi.
authors.forename: Antti
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Roine
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Tampere and Department of Urology, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Erik
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Veskimäe
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, University of Tampere, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Antti
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tuokko
authors.affiliation: Department of Automation Science and Engineering, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Pekka
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Kumpulainen
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Tampere and Department of Urology, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Juha
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Koskimäki
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, Tumor and Cell Biology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden.
authors.forename: Tuomo A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Keinänen
authors.affiliation: School of Pharmacy, Biocenter Kuopio, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.
authors.forename: Merja R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Häkkinen
authors.affiliation: School of Pharmacy, Biocenter Kuopio, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Finland.
authors.forename: Jouko
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Vepsäläinen
authors.affiliation: Department of Pathology, School of Medicine, University of Tampere and Fimlab Laboratories, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Timo
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Paavonen
authors.affiliation: Department of Automation Science and Engineering, Tampere University of Technology, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Jukka
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lekkala
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Chemistry, Fimlab Laboratories and University of Tampere, School of Medicine, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Terho
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Lehtimäki
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Tampere and Department of Urology, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Teuvo L
authors.initials: TL
authors.lastname: Tammela
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, University of Tampere and Department of Vascular Surgery, Tampere University Hospital, Tampere, Finland.
authors.forename: Niku K J
authors.initials: NK
authors.lastname: Oksala
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D062609:Electronic Nose; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011446:Prospective Studies; D011470:Prostatic Hyperplasia / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000652:urine; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000652:urine
keywords: electronic nose; prostatic hyperplasia; prostatic neoplasms