title: Variation in stem anatomical characteristics of Campanuloideae species in relation to evolutionary history and ecological preferences.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The detailed knowledge of plant anatomical characters and their variation among closely related taxa is key to understanding their evolution and function. We examined anatomical variation in 46 herbaceous taxa from the subfamily Campanuloideae (Campanulaceae) to link this information with their phylogeny, ecology and comparative material of 56 woody tropical taxa from the subfamily Lobelioideae. The species studied covered major environmental gradients from Mediterranean to Arctic zones, allowing us to test hypotheses on the evolution of anatomical structure in relation to plant competitive ability and ecological preferences.
  
  
  RESULTS
  To understand the evolution of anatomical diversity, we reconstructed the phylogeny of studied species from nucleotide sequences and examined the distribution of anatomical characters on the resulting phylogenetic tree. Redundancy analysis, with phylogenetic corrections, was used to separate the evolutionary inertia from the adaptation to the environment. A large anatomical diversity exists within the Campanuloideae. Traits connected with the quality of fibres were the most congruent with phylogeny, and the Rapunculus 2 ("phyteumoid") clade was especially distinguished by a number of characters (absence of fibres, pervasive parenchyma, type of rays) from two other clades (Campanula s. str. and Rapunculus 1) characterized by the dominance of fibres and the absence of parenchyma. Septate fibres are an exclusive trait in the Lobelioideae, separating it clearly from the Campanuloideae where annual rings, pervasive parenchyma and crystals in the phellem are characteristic features.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite clear phylogenetic inertia in the anatomical features studied, the ecological attributes and plant height had a significant effect on anatomical divergence. From all three evolutionary clades, the taller species converged towards similar anatomical structure, characterized by a smaller number of early wood vessels of large diameter, thinner cell-walls and alternate intervessel pits, while the opposite trend was found in small Arctic and alpine taxa. This supports the existing generalization that narrower vessels allow plants to grow in colder places where they can avoid freezing-induced embolism, while taller plants have wider vessels to minimize hydraulic resistance with their greater path lengths.
authors.affiliation: Swiss Federal Research Institute WSL, Birmensdorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Fritz Hans
authors.initials: FH
authors.lastname: Schweingruber
authors.affiliation: Section of Plant Ecology, Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Třeboň, Czech Republic ; Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Pavel
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Ríha
authors.affiliation: Section of Plant Ecology, Institute of Botany, Academy of Sciences of the Czech Republic, Třeboň, Czech Republic ; Department of Botany, Faculty of Science, University of South Bohemia, České Budějovice, Czech Republic.
authors.forename: Jiří
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Doležal
mesh_terms: D000220:Adaptation, Biological / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D001499:Bayes Theorem; D005075:Biological Evolution; D029422:Campanulaceae / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D019295:Computational Biology; D017753:Ecosystem; D008957:Models, Genetic; D010802:Phylogeny; D018547:Plant Stems / Q000033:anatomy & histology*; D013045:Species Specificity