title: Serum albumin and HCO3- regulate separate pools of ATP in human spermatozoa.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Do the known capacitating agents HCO(3)(-) and serum albumin regulate the generation of ATP required for sperm motility and capacitation?
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Serum albumin and HCO(3)(-) seem to regulate two separate pools of ATP by different mechanisms in human spermatozoa.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Sperm capacitation is a maturation process that naturally occurs in the female reproductive tract preparing the sperm cell for fertilization. It is a highly energy-depending process as it involves hyperactive motility and substantial levels of protein phosphorylation.
  
  
  METHODS
  Human sperm cells from four (motility experiments) and three (all other experiments) healthy donors were used. Untreated cells were compared with cells treated with HCO(3)(-) and serum albumin for up to 4 h.
  
  
  METHODS
  Changes in glycolysis and mitochondrial respiration rates upon treatment with serum albumin and HCO(3)(-) were analysed by metabolic tracing of (13)C-labelled substrates and respirometry studies, respectively. Levels of hyperactive spermatozoa and ATP content were measured during 4 h of incubation under capacitating conditions.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that HCO(3)(-) significantly (P < 0.05) increased glycolytic flux by >3-folds via a cAMP/PKA sensitive pathway. This was accompanied by an increase in hyperactive motility. In contrast, serum albumin significantly increased endogenous ATP levels by 50% without stimulating hyperactive motility or glycolysis, indicating that this pool of ATP is separately located from the HCO(3)(-)-induced ATP. The increase in ATP induced by albumin could be mimicked by treatment with the cholesterol acceptors 2-hydroxypropyl- and methyl-β-cyclodextrin and counteracted by co-incubation with cholesterol sulphate to the level of the non-treated control (P < 0.05), pointing to cholesterol extraction from the sperm cell membrane as the main mechanism. However, the concentration of cyclodextrins needed to directly detect cholesterol extraction from the sperm cells was not compatible with maintenance of sperm viability. The increase in ATP seemed not to be dependent on the sperm-specific Ca(2+) channel CatSper. Finally, we demonstrated that neither HCO(3)(-) nor serum albumin stimulated mitochondrial respiration rates. However, serum albumin increased the respiratory capacity of mitochondria by >50%, an effect that was counteracted by HCO(3)(-).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Great variation in motility and capacitation is observed between sperm cells from different species. Hence, caution should be taken when extrapolating the findings in this work on human spermatozoa to sperm from other species.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It is already established that an efficient energy-generation is required to support sperm motility and capacitation. However, the mechanisms explaining how ATP production is regulated in spermatozoa are not fully understood. Our findings indicate that HCO(3)(-) stimulates hyperactive motility by increasing glycolytic flux and ATP production in a cAMP/PKA sensitive fashion. On the other hand, serum albumin seems to increase ATP concentration at a different location and by a mechanism different from glycolysis that involves extraction of cholesterol from the sperm cell membrane. These new insights into sperm metabolism may pave the way for both the development of new and improved male contraceptives and optimized assisted reproduction techniques.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  The work was funded by Spermatech AS, The University of Oslo and the Research Council of Norway.
  T.H.H. and K.R.R. are employees at Spermatech. B.S.S is a shareholder in Spermatech.
authors.affiliation: Spermatech AS, 0373 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: T H
authors.initials: TH
authors.lastname: Hereng
authors.forename: K B P
authors.initials: KB
authors.lastname: Elgstøen
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Eide
authors.forename: K R
authors.initials: KR
authors.lastname: Rosendal
authors.forename: B S
authors.initials: BS
authors.lastname: Skålhegg
mesh_terms: D020101:Acrosome Reaction / Q000187:drug effects; D000255:Adenosine Triphosphate / Q000378:metabolism*; D001639:Bicarbonates / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology*; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects; D006019:Glycolysis / Q000187:drug effects; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008928:Mitochondria / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D010766:Phosphorylation; D012709:Serum Albumin / Q000378:metabolism / Q000494:pharmacology*; D013075:Sperm Capacitation / Q000187:drug effects*; D013081:Sperm Motility / Q000187:drug effects*; D013094:Spermatozoa / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D001639:Bicarbonates; D012709:Serum Albumin; D000255:Adenosine Triphosphate
keywords: HCO3-; capacitation; human serum albumin; protein kinase A; sperm metabolism