title: Methods to quantify soft tissue-based cranial growth and treatment outcomes in children: a systematic review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Longitudinal assessment of cranial dimensions of growing children provides healthcare professionals with information about normal and deviating growth as well as treatment outcome.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To give an overview of soft tissue-based methods for quantitative longitudinal assessment of cranial dimensions in children until age 6 years and to assess the reliability of these methods in studies with good methodological quality.
  
  
  METHODS
  PubMed, EMBASE, Cochrane Library, Web of Science, Scopus, and CINAHL were searched. A manual search was performed to check for additional relevant studies.
  
  
  METHODS
  Primary publications on facial growth and treatment outcomes in children younger than age 6 years were included.
  
  
  METHODS
  Independent data extraction was performed by two observers. A quality assessment instrument was used to determine methodological quality. Methods used in studies with good methodological quality were assessed for reliability expressed as the magnitude of the measurement error and the correlation coefficient between repeated measurements.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In total, 165 studies were included, forming three groups of methods: head circumference anthropometry, direct anthropometry, and 2D photography and 3D imaging techniques (surface laser scanning and stereophotogrammetry). In general, the measurement error was below 2 mm, and correlation coefficients were very good.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Various methods for measuring cranial dimensions have shown to be reliable. Stereophotogrammetry is the most versatile method for quantitative longitudinal assessment of cranial dimensions and shapes in children. However, direct anthropometry continues to be the best method for routine clinical assessments of linear cranial dimensions in growing children until age 6 years.
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthodontics and Craniofacial Biology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Sander
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Brons
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthodontics and Craniofacial Biology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Machteld E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: van Beusichem
authors.affiliation: Department of Preventive and Curative Dentistry, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Ewald M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Bronkhorst
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatrics, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jos M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Draaisma
authors.affiliation: Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Stefaan J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Bergé
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthodontics and Craniofacial Biology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jan G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Schols
authors.affiliation: Department of Orthodontics and Craniofacial Biology, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Anne Marie
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Kuijpers-Jagtman
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000254:growth & development*; D002508:Cephalometry / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D015203:Reproducibility of Results