title: Coxsackievirus A9 infects cells via nonacidic multivesicular bodies.
abstract: Coxsackievirus A9 (CVA9) is a member of the human enterovirus B species in the Enterovirus genus of the family Picornaviridae. According to earlier studies, CVA9 binds to αVβ3 and αVβ6 integrins on the cell surface and utilizes β2-microglobulin, dynamin, and Arf6 for internalization. However, the structures utilized by the virus for internalization and uncoating are less well understood. We show here, based on electron microscopy, that CVA9 is found in multivesicular structures 2 h postinfection (p.i.). A neutral red labeling assay revealed that uncoating occurs mainly around 2 h p.i., while double-stranded RNA is found in the cytoplasm after 3 h p.i. The biogenesis of multivesicular bodies (MVBs) is crucial for promoting infection, as judged by the strong inhibitory effect of the wild-type form of Hrs and dominant negative form of VPS4 in CVA9 infection. CVA9 infection is dependent on phospholipase C at the start of infection, whereas Rac1 is especially important between 1 and 3 h p.i., when the virus is in endosomes. Several lines of evidence implicate that low pH does not play a role in CVA9 infection. The infection is not affected by Bafilomycin A1. In addition, CVA9 is not targeted to acidic late endosomes or lysosomes, and the MVBs accumulating CVA9 have a neutral pH. Thus, CVA9 is the second enterovirus demonstrated so far, after echovirus 1, that can trigger neutral MVBs, which are important for virus infection.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We demonstrate here that the enterovirus coxsackievirus A9 (CVA9) uses a nonclathrin and nonacidic pathway to infect cells. CVA9 does not accumulate in conventional late endosomes or lysosomes. We found that inhibitors of phospholipase C (PLC), Rac1, and the Na(+)/H(+) exchanger decreased CVA9 infection. The PLC inhibitor acts on early entry, the Rac1 inhibitor acts between 1 and 3 h, when the virus is in endosomes, and the Na(+)/H(+) exchange inhibitor acts during various steps during the virus life cycle. The infection depends on the formation of novel neutral multivesicular bodies (MVBs), which accumulate CVA9 during the first hours of entry. Thus, CVA9 is the second enterovirus demonstrated so far, after echovirus 1, that can trigger formation of neutral MVBs. The data show that these enteroviruses favor nonacidic conditions and complex MVBs to promote virus infection.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological and Environmental Science and NanoScience Center, University of Jyväskylä, Jyväskylä, Finland.
authors.forename: Moona
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Huttunen
authors.forename: Matti
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Waris
authors.forename: Ritva
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kajander
authors.forename: Timo
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Hyypiä
authors.forename: Varpu
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Marjomäki
mesh_terms: D002460:Cell Line; D029822:Enterovirus B, Human / Q000502:physiology*; D004847:Epithelial Cells / Q000821:virology; D006801:Humans; D006863:Hydrogen-Ion Concentration; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D057146:Multivesicular Bodies / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000648:ultrastructure / Q000821:virology*; D053586:Virus Internalization