title: Tuberculosis and HIV co-infection in children.
abstract: HIV is the top and tuberculosis is the second leading cause of death from infectious disease worldwide, with an estimated 8.7 million incident cases of tuberculosis and 2.5 million new HIV infections annually. The World Health Organization estimates that HIV prevalence among children with tuberculosis, in countries with moderate to high prevalence, ranges from 10 to 60%. The mechanisms promoting susceptibility of people with HIV to tuberculosis disease are incompletely understood, being likely caused by multifactorial processes. Paediatric tuberculosis and HIV have overlapping clinical manifestations, which could lead to missed or late diagnosis. Although every effort should be made to obtain a microbiologically-confirmed diagnosis in children with tuberculosis, in reality this may only be achieved in a minority, reflecting their paucibacillary nature and the difficulties in obtain samples. Rapid polymerase chain reaction tests, such as Xpert MTB/RIF assay, are increasingly used in children. The use of less or non invasive methods of sample collection, such as naso-pharyngeal aspirates and stool samples for a polymerase chain reaction-based diagnostic test tests and mycobacterial cultures is promising technique in HIV negative and HIV positive children. Anti-tuberculosis treatment should be started immediately at diagnosis with a four drug regimen, irrespective of the disease severity. Moreover, tuberculosis disease in an HIV infected child is considered to be a clinical indication for initiation of antiretroviral treatment. The World Health Organization recommends starting antiretroviral treatment in children as soon as anti-tuberculosis treatment is tolerated and within 2- 8 weeks after initiating it. The treatment of choice depends on the child's age and availability of age-appropriate formulations, and potential drug interactions and resistance. Treatment of multidrug resistant tuberculosis in HIV-infected children follows same principles as for HIV uninfected children. There are conflicting results on effectiveness of isoniazid preventive therapy in reducing incidence of tuberculosis disease in children with HIV.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Data on HIV/TB co-infection in children are still lacking. There are on-going large clinical trials on the prevention and treatment of TB/HIV infection in children that hopefully will help to guide an evidence-based clinical practice in both resource-rich and resource-limited settings.HIV is the top and tuberculosis is the second leading cause of death from infectious disease worldwide, with an estimated 8.7 million incident cases of tuberculosis and 2.5 million new HIV infections annually. The World Health Organization estimates that HIV prevalence among children with tuberculosis, in countries with moderate to high prevalence, ranges from 10 to 60%. The mechanisms promoting susceptibility of people with HIV to tuberculosis disease are incompletely understood, being likely caused by multifactorial processes.
authors.forename: Elisabetta
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Venturini
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Turkova
authors.forename: Elena
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Chiappini
authors.forename: Luisa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Galli
authors.forename: Maurizio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: de Martino
authors.forename: Claire
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Thorne
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D060085:Coinfection / Q000453:epidemiology*; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000150:complications* / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology*; D006801:Humans; D054019:Immune Reconstitution Inflammatory Syndrome / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy; D015994:Incidence; D007538:Isoniazid / Q000627:therapeutic use; D015995:Prevalence; D014376:Tuberculosis / Q000150:complications* / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology*; D018088:Tuberculosis, Multidrug-Resistant / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D007538:Isoniazid