title: Mould incidence and mycotoxin contamination in freshly harvested maize kernels originated from India.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In this study, mould incidence and mycotoxin contamination were determined in freshly harvested maize samples collected from different agroclimatic regions of India. A total of 150 freshly harvested maize samples from major maize-growing areas of India (Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Tamilnadu) were collected during winter seasons 2010-2011 and 2011-2012 to determine their toxigenic fungal incidences, and mycotoxins were analyzed and quantified by high-perfomance liquid chromatography. A total of 288 fungal isolates comprising Fusarium, Aspergillus and Penicillium species were tested for aflatoxin B1 (AFB1), ochratoxin A (OTA), trichothecenes (deoxynivalenol (DON) and T-2 toxin) and fumonisin B1 (FB1). Chemotype determination of fungal isolates was carried out by molecular and chemical analysis through polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and high-performance thin layer chromatography respectively. The diversity and distribution of the mycoflora among the studied samples were recorded in terms of frequency, density, importance value index and diversity indices.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 288 fungal isolates were recovered from the 150 maize samples, of which 28 were positive for AFB1, 20 for OTA, 58 for FB1, 23 for DON and 11 for T-2 toxin chemotypes by PCR. Species-specific PCR assays were in line with morphological analysis. Toxigenic fungal incidences were found throughout the study region, and most of the toxins under study exceeded the maximum legal limits. The range of observed toxin concentrations were 48-58 µg AFB1, 76-123 µg FB1, 38-50 µg T-2, 72-94 µg DON and <5 µg OTA kg⁻¹ grain sample.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Owing to the high incidences of toxigenic moulds and mycotoxins in the study area, there is a need for the creation of mycotoxin awareness among maize farmers of India to control the chronic adverse health effects on humans and livestock due to mycotoxins.
authors.affiliation: DRDO-BU Centre for Life Sciences, Bharathiar University Campus, Coimbatore-641 046, Tamilnadu, India.
authors.forename: Venkataramana
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Mudili
authors.forename: Chandra Nayaka
authors.initials: CN
authors.lastname: Siddaih
authors.forename: Madhukar
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Nagesh
authors.forename: Phanikumar
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Garapati
authors.forename: Kalagatur
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Naveen Kumar
authors.forename: Harishchandra Sreepathi
authors.initials: HS
authors.lastname: Murali
authors.forename: Tapani
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Yli Mattila
authors.forename: Harsh Vardan
authors.initials: HV
authors.lastname: Batra
mesh_terms: D016604:Aflatoxin B1 / Q000032:analysis / Q000096:biosynthesis; D001230:Aspergillus / Q000145:classification / Q000254:growth & development / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000378:metabolism; D002980:Climate; D018556:Crops, Agricultural / Q000737:chemistry / Q000382:microbiology*; D005506:Food Contamination; D037341:Fumonisins / Q000032:analysis / Q000378:metabolism; D005658:Fungi / Q000145:classification / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000378:metabolism; D005670:Fusarium / Q000145:classification / Q000254:growth & development / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000378:metabolism; D007194:India; D058889:Molecular Typing; D016533:Mycological Typing Techniques; D009183:Mycotoxins / Q000032:analysis* / Q000096:biosynthesis; D009793:Ochratoxins / Q000032:analysis / Q000096:biosynthesis; D010407:Penicillium / Q000145:classification / Q000254:growth & development / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000378:metabolism; D012639:Seeds / Q000737:chemistry / Q000382:microbiology*; D062211:Spatio-Temporal Analysis; D013045:Species Specificity; D014255:Trichothecenes / Q000032:analysis / Q000096:biosynthesis; D003313:Zea mays / Q000737:chemistry / Q000382:microbiology*
chemical_list: D037341:Fumonisins; D009183:Mycotoxins; D009793:Ochratoxins; D014255:Trichothecenes; C025589:ochratoxin A; C056933:fumonisin B1; D016604:Aflatoxin B1; C007262:deoxynivalenol
keywords: HPLC; India; PCR; fungi; maize; mycotoxins