title: Cognitive reserve and emotional stimuli in older individuals: level of education moderates the age-related positivity effect.
abstract: BACKGROUND/STUDY CONTEXT: A frequently observed age-related effect is a preference in older individuals for positive stimuli. The cognitive control model proposes that this positivity effect may be mediated by executive functions. We propose that cognitive reserve, operationally defined as years of education, which tempers cognitive decline and has been linked to executive functions, should also influence the age-related positivity effect, especially as age advances.
  
  
  METHODS
  An emotional free recall test was administered to a group of 84 cognitively intact individuals aged 60 to 88, who varied in years of education. As part of a larger test battery, data were obtained on measures of executive functioning and depression.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Multiple regression and moderation analyses were performed, controlling for general cognitive function, severity of depressive symptoms, and executive function. In our data, years of education appeared to moderate the effect of age on the positivity effect; age was negatively associated with recall of positive words in participants with fewer years of education, whereas a nonsignificant positive correlation was observed between age and positivity in participants with more education.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cognitive reserve appears to play a role in explaining individual differences in the positivity effect in healthy older individuals. Future studies should investigate whether cognitive reserve is also implicated in the ability to process a wide range of emotional stimuli and whether greater reserve is reflected in improved emotional regulation.
authors.affiliation: a Department of Psychology , Liverpool Hope University , Liverpool , UK.
authors.forename: Davide
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Bruno
authors.forename: Adam D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Brown
authors.forename: Aycan
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kapucu
authors.forename: Charles R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Marmar
authors.forename: Nunzio
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Pomara
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000375:Aging / Q000523:psychology*; D058245:Cognitive Reserve; D004522:Educational Status; D004644:Emotions; D056344:Executive Function; D006801:Humans; D011939:Mental Recall; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests