title: 4D ultrasound speckle tracking of intra-fraction prostate motion: a phantom-based comparison with x-ray fiducial tracking using CyberKnife.
abstract: This study investigates the use of a mechanically-swept 3D ultrasound (3D-US) probe for soft-tissue displacement monitoring during prostate irradiation, with emphasis on quantifying the accuracy relative to CyberKnife® x-ray fiducial tracking. An US phantom, implanted with x-ray fiducial markers was placed on a motion platform and translated in 3D using five real prostate motion traces acquired using the Calypso system. Motion traces were representative of all types of motion as classified by studying Calypso data for 22 patients. The phantom was imaged using a 3D swept linear-array probe (to mimic trans-perineal imaging) and, subsequently, the kV x-ray imaging system on CyberKnife. A 3D cross-correlation block-matching algorithm was used to track speckle in the ultrasound data. Fiducial and US data were each compared with known phantom displacement. Trans-perineal 3D-US imaging could track superior-inferior (SI) and anterior-posterior (AP) motion to ≤0.81 mm root-mean-square error (RMSE) at a 1.7 Hz volume rate. The maximum kV x-ray tracking RMSE was 0.74 mm, however the prostate motion was sampled at a significantly lower imaging rate (mean: 0.04 Hz). Initial elevational (right-left; RL) US displacement estimates showed reduced accuracy but could be improved (RMSE <2.0 mm) using a correlation threshold in the ultrasound tracking code to remove erroneous inter-volume displacement estimates. Mechanically-swept 3D-US can track the major components of intra-fraction prostate motion accurately but exhibits some limitations. The largest US RMSE was for elevational (RL) motion. For the AP and SI axes, accuracy was sub-millimetre. It may be feasible to track prostate motion in 2D only. 3D-US also has the potential to improve high tracking accuracy for all motion types. It would be advisable to use US in conjunction with a small (∼2.0 mm) centre-of-mass displacement threshold in which case it would be possible to take full advantage of the accuracy and high imaging rate capability.
authors.affiliation: Joint Department of Physics, The Institute of Cancer Research and The Royal Marsden NHS foundation Trust, Sutton and London, UK.
authors.forename: Tuathan P
authors.initials: TP
authors.lastname: O'Shea
authors.forename: Leo J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Garcia
authors.forename: Karen E
authors.initials: KE
authors.lastname: Rosser
authors.forename: Emma J
authors.initials: EJ
authors.lastname: Harris
authors.forename: Philip M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.forename: Jeffrey C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Bamber
mesh_terms: D019583:Dose Fractionation, Radiation; D057918:Fiducial Markers; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional / Q000295:instrumentation*; D008297:Male; D009068:Movement; D019047:Phantoms, Imaging; D011467:Prostate / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000601:surgery; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000601:surgery; D016634:Radiosurgery; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000592:standards; D014463:Ultrasonography