title: Social differences in avoidable mortality between small areas of 15 European cities: an ecological study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Health and inequalities in health among inhabitants of European cities are of major importance for European public health and there is great interest in how different health care systems in Europe perform in the reduction of health inequalities. However, evidence on the spatial distribution of cause-specific mortality across neighbourhoods of European cities is scarce. This study presents maps of avoidable mortality in European cities and analyses differences in avoidable mortality between neighbourhoods with different levels of deprivation.
  
  
  METHODS
  We determined the level of mortality from 14 avoidable causes of death for each neighbourhood of 15 large cities in different European regions. To address the problems associated with Standardised Mortality Ratios for small areas we smooth them using the Bayesian model proposed by Besag, York and Mollié. Ecological regression analysis was used to assess the association between social deprivation and mortality.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mortality from avoidable causes of death is higher in deprived neighbourhoods and mortality rate ratios between areas with different levels of deprivation differ between gender and cities. In most cases rate ratios are lower among women. While Eastern and Southern European cities show higher levels of avoidable mortality, the association of mortality with social deprivation tends to be higher in Northern and lower in Southern Europe.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There are marked differences in the level of avoidable mortality between neighbourhoods of European cities and the level of avoidable mortality is associated with social deprivation. There is no systematic difference in the magnitude of this association between European cities or regions. Spatial patterns of avoidable mortality across small city areas can point to possible local problems and specific strategies to reduce health inequality which is important for the development of urban areas and the well-being of their inhabitants.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health, Erasmus Medical Center, P,O, Box 2040, Rotterdam, CA 3000, The Netherlands. r.hoffmann@erasmusmc.nl.
authors.forename: Rasmus
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hoffmann
authors.forename: Gerard
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Borsboom
authors.forename: Marc
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Saez
authors.forename: Marc
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Mari Dell'Olmo
authors.forename: Bo
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Burström
authors.forename: Diana
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Corman
authors.forename: Claudia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Costa
authors.forename: Patrick
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Deboosere
authors.forename: M Felicitas
authors.initials: MF
authors.lastname: Domínguez-Berjón
authors.forename: Dagmar
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Dzúrová
authors.forename: Ana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Gandarillas
authors.forename: Mercè
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gotsens
authors.forename: Katalin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kovács
authors.forename: Johan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Mackenbach
authors.forename: Pekka
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Martikainen
authors.forename: Laia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Maynou
authors.forename: Joana
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Morrison
authors.forename: Laia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Palència
authors.forename: Gloria
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Pérez
authors.forename: Hynek
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Pikhart
authors.forename: Maica
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Rodríguez-Sanz
authors.forename: Paula
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Santana
authors.forename: Carme
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Saurina
authors.forename: Lasse
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Tarkiainen
authors.forename: Carme
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Borrell
mesh_terms: D002947:Cities / Q000191:economics* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D005060:Europe / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D062305:Geographic Mapping; D054624:Health Status Disparities; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009026:Mortality / Q000639:trends*; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors