title: Adaptation for rodent pollination in Leucospermum arenarium (Proteaceae) despite rapid pollen loss during grooming.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Plants are adapted for rodent pollination in diverse and intricate ways. This study explores an extraordinary example of these adaptations in the pincushion Leucospermum arenarium (Proteaceae) from South Africa.
  
  
  METHODS
  Live trapping and differential exclusion experiments were used to test the role of rodents versus birds and insects as pollinators. To explore the adaptive significance of geoflory, inflorescences were raised above ground level and seed production was compared. Captive rodents and flowers with artificial stigmas were used to test the effect of grooming on the rate of pollen loss. Microscopy, nectar composition analysis and manipulative experiments were used to investigate the bizarre nectar production and transport system.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Differential exclusion of rodents, birds and insects demonstrated the importance of rodents in promoting seed production. Live trapping revealed that hairy-footed gerbils, Gerbillurus paeba, and striped field mice, Rhabdomys pumilio, both carried L. arenarium pollen on their forehead and rostrum, but much larger quantities ended up in faeces as a result of grooming. Terrarium experiments showed that grooming exponentially diminished the pollen loads that they carried. The nectar of L. arenarium was found to be unusually viscous and to be presented in a novel location on the petal tips, where rodents could access it without destroying the flowers. Nectar was produced inside the perianth, but was translocated to the petal tips via capillary ducts. In common with many other rodent-pollinated plants, the flowers are presented at ground level, but when raised to higher positions seed production was not reduced, indicating that selection through female function does not drive the evolution of geoflory.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Despite the apparent cost of pollen lost to grooming, L. arenarium has evolved remarkable adaptations for rodent pollination and provides the first case of this pollination system in the genus.
authors.affiliation: Department of Botany & Zoology, Stellenbosch University, Private Bag X1, Matieland 7602, South Africa.
authors.forename: Christopher Michael
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.forename: Anton
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pauw
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000818:Animals; D006120:Grooming; D054817:Pollination; D039105:Proteaceae / Q000502:physiology*; D012377:Rodentia / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Convergent evolution; Gerbillurus paeba; Leucospermum arenarium; Rhabdomys pumilio; floral nectarines; floral syndrome; geoflory; pincushion; pollen fate; pollinator grooming; rodent pollination; specialized pollination system; viscous nectar