title: Emerging micro- and nanotechnology based synthetic approaches for insulin delivery.
abstract: Insulin is essential for type 1 and advanced type 2 diabetics to maintain blood glucose levels and prolong lives. The traditional administration requires frequent subcutaneous insulin injections that are associated with poor patient compliance, including pain, local tissue necrosis, infection, and nerve damage. Taking advantage of emerging micro- and nanotechnologies, numerous alternative strategies integrated with chemical approaches for insulin delivery have been investigated. This review outlines recent developments in the controlled delivery of insulin, including oral, nasal, pulmonary, transdermal, subcutaneous and closed-loop insulin delivery. Perspectives from new materials, formulations and devices at the micro- or nano-scales are specifically surveyed. Advantages and limitations of current delivery methods, as well as future opportunities and challenges are also discussed.
authors.affiliation: Joint Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill and North Carolina State University, Raleigh, NC 27695, USA. zgu@email.unc.edu zgu3@ncsu.edu.
authors.forename: Ran
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mo
authors.forename: Tianyue
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Jiang
authors.forename: Jin
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Di
authors.forename: Wanyi
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Tai
authors.forename: Zhen
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Gu
mesh_terms: D003920:Diabetes Mellitus / Q000188:drug therapy; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems; D004867:Equipment Design; D006801:Humans; D007328:Insulin / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D007332:Insulin Infusion Systems; D036103:Nanotechnology / Q000295:instrumentation*
chemical_list: D007328:Insulin