title: How quickly can a β-hairpin fold from its transition state?
abstract: Understanding the structural nature of the free energy bottleneck(s) encountered in protein folding is essential to elucidating the underlying dynamics and mechanism. For this reason, several techniques, including Φ-value analysis, have previously been developed to infer the structural characteristics of such high free-energy or transition states. Herein we propose that one (or few) appropriately placed backbone and/or side chain cross-linkers, such as disulfides, could be used to populate a thermodynamically accessible conformational state that mimics the folding transition state. Specifically, we test this hypothesis on a model β-hairpin, Trpzip4, as its folding mechanism has been extensively studied and is well understood. Our results show that cross-linking the two β-strands near the turn region increases the folding rate by an order of magnitude, to about (500 ns)(−1), whereas cross-linking the termini results in a hyperstable β-hairpin that has essentially the same folding rate as the uncross-linked peptide. Taken together, these findings suggest that cross-linking is not only a useful strategy to manipulate folding free energy barriers, as shown in other studies, but also, in some cases, it can be used to stabilize a folding transition state analogue and allow for direct assessment of the folding process on the downhill side of the free energy barrier. The calculated free energy landscape of the cross-linked Trpzip4 also supports this picture. An empirical analysis further suggests, when folding of β-hairpins does not involve a significant free energy barrier, the folding time (τ) follows a power law dependence on the number of hydrogen bonds to be formed (n(H)), namely, τ = τ(0)n(H)(α), with τ(0) = 20 ns and α = 2.3.
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry and ‡Department of Biochemistry and Biophysics, University of Pennsylvania , Philadelphia, Pennsylvania 19104, United States.
authors.forename: Beatrice N
authors.initials: BN
authors.lastname: Markiewicz
authors.forename: Lijiang
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.forename: Robert M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Culik
authors.forename: Yi Qin
authors.initials: YQ
authors.lastname: Gao
authors.forename: Feng
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Gai
mesh_terms: D006860:Hydrogen Bonding; D007700:Kinetics; D008958:Models, Molecular; D017510:Protein Folding; D017433:Protein Structure, Secondary; D011506:Proteins / Q000737:chemistry*; D013816:Thermodynamics
chemical_list: D011506:Proteins; C539234:Trpzip2 protein