title: Workplace drug testing in Italy: findings about second-stage testing.
abstract: Workplace Drug Testing (WDT) in Italy includes two levels of monitoring: a first stage concerning drug testing on urine samples and a second involving both urine and hair analysis. The second stage is performed only on workers who tested positive at the first level. We analyzed urine and hair specimens from 120 workers undergoing second-level testing between 2009 and 2012. Eighty percent of them had tested positive for cannabinoids during the first level analysis, and 15.8% for cocaine. Both urine and hair samples were analyzed in order to find the following drugs of abuse: amphetamines, buprenorphine, cannabinoids, cocaine, ecstasy, methadone, and opiates. Urine analyses were performed by immunological screening (EMIT); urine confirmatory tests and hair analyses were performed by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry (GC-MS). As regards second-stage testing on urine samples, 71.2% of workers were always negative, whereas 23.9% tested positive at least once for cannabinoids and 2.5% for cocaine. Hair analyses produced surprising results: 61.9% of hair samples tested negative, only 6.2% tested positive for cannabinoids, whereas 28.8% tested positive for cocaine. These findings confirm that second-level surveillance of WDT, which includes hair analysis, is very effective because it highlights drug intake - sometimes heavy - that cannot be revealed only through urine analyses. The employees for whom drug addiction is proved can begin rehabilitation, while keeping their job. Eventually, our results confirmed the widespread and undeclared use of cocaine in Italy.
authors.affiliation: Department of Public Health, Experimental and Forensic Medicine, University of Pavia, Italy.
authors.forename: Claudia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Vignali
authors.forename: Cristiana
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Stramesi
authors.forename: Luca
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Morini
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: San Bartolomeo
authors.forename: Angelo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Groppi
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002186:Cannabinoids / Q000032:analysis* / Q000652:urine; D003042:Cocaine / Q000032:analysis* / Q000652:urine; D008401:Gas Chromatography-Mass Spectrometry / Q000379:methods; D006197:Hair / Q000737:chemistry; D006801:Humans; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000032:analysis* / Q000652:urine; D007558:Italy; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015813:Substance Abuse Detection / Q000379:methods*; D016482:Urinalysis / Q000379:methods; D017132:Workplace; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D002186:Cannabinoids; D013287:Illicit Drugs; D003042:Cocaine
keywords: Italy; drugs of abuse; hair analysis; workplace drug testing