title: Plasmodium knowlesi in travellers, update 2014.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Since the initial discovery of Plasmodium knowlesi in Malaysia, cases have been reported from several neighbouring countries. Tourism has also resulted in an increasing number of cases diagnosed in Europe, America, and Oceania. In this review we focus on the risk of the travel-associated acquisition of P. knowlesi malaria.
  
  
  METHODS
  A search of the literature in PubMed was carried out to identify articles and literature on the distribution of P. knowlesi infections in Southeast Asia and details of its acquisition and importation by travellers to other continents. The cut-off date for the search was December 1, 2013. Search words used were: "Plasmodium knowlesi", "Plasmodium knowlesi infections", "Plasmodium knowlesi travellers", "Plasmodium knowlesi prevalence", "Plasmodium knowlesi host", "Plasmodium knowlesi vector" "Plasmodium knowlesi RDT", and "Plasmodium knowlesi Malaysia". Traveller numbers to Malaysia were obtained from the Tourism Malaysia website.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 103 articles were found. Using a selection of these and others identified from the reference lists of the papers, we based our review on a total of 66 articles.
  
  
  RESULTS
  P. knowlesi malaria appears to be the most common malaria species in Malaysian Borneo and is also widely distributed on the Malaysian mainland. Furthermore, locally transmitted cases of P. knowlesi malaria have been reported in Thailand, the Philippines, Vietnam, Singapore, Myanmar, Indonesian Borneo, and Cambodia. Two cases have been reported from non-endemic countries in Asia (Japan and Taiwan) in people with a history of travel to Malaysia and the Philippines. Twelve cases were imported to their home countries by travellers from other continents: two from the USA, two from the Netherlands, two from Germany, and one each from Spain, France, Sweden, Finland, Australia, and New Zealand. In most cases, the infection was associated with a trip to or near forested areas. The symptoms were fever (n=12), headache (n=6), chills (n=6), nausea (n=4), myalgia (n=3), back pain (n=3), abdominal problems (n=1), anorexia (n=2), fatigue (n=2), malaise (n=1), arthralgia (n=1), sore throat (n=1) vomiting (n=2), and jaundice (n=1). All patients were treated successfully with currently available antimalaria treatments. The identification of the pathogen by microscopy can be problematic due to the morphological similarity of P. knowlesi to Plasmodium malariae.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  P. knowlesi appears to be a threat not only to the local population in Malaysia, but also to the estimated 25 million annual tourists and occupational travellers to Malaysia, especially those who visit rural, forested areas of the country. The P. knowlesi risk is not limited to Malaysia, and travellers from Southeast Asia presenting with possible malaria should be considered for a diagnostic work-up that includes P. knowlesi.
authors.affiliation: University of Zürich, Centre for Travel Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Travellers' Health, Hirschengraben 84, 8001 Zürich, Switzerland. Electronic address: mueller.mattia@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Mattia
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Müller
authors.affiliation: University of Zürich, Centre for Travel Medicine, WHO Collaborating Centre for Travellers' Health, Hirschengraben 84, 8001 Zürich, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Patricia
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Schlagenhauf
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000818:Animals; D000962:Antimalarials / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001210:Asia, Southeastern / Q000453:epidemiology; D002648:Child; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008252:Macaca fascicularis; D008288:Malaria / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D008297:Male; D016790:Plasmodium knowlesi / Q000187:drug effects / Q000302:isolation & purification* / Q000502:physiology; D010965:Plasmodium malariae / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000502:physiology; D014195:Travel
chemical_list: D000962:Antimalarials
keywords: Malaysia; Plasmodium knowlesi; Southeast Asia; Travellers