title: General and substance-specific predictors of young adult nicotine dependence, alcohol use disorder, and problem behavior: replication in two samples.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  This paper presents two replications of a heuristic model for measuring environment in studies of gene-environment interplay in the etiology of young adult problem behaviors.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data were drawn from two longitudinal, U.S. studies of the etiology of substance use and related behaviors: the Raising Healthy Children study (RHC; N=1040, 47% female) and the Minnesota Twin Family Study (MTFS; N=1512, 50% female). RHC included a Pacific Northwest, school-based, community sample. MTFS included twins identified from state birth records in Minnesota. Both studies included commensurate measures of general family environment and family substance-specific environments in adolescence (RHC ages 10-18; MTFS age 18), as well as young adult nicotine dependence, alcohol and illicit drug use disorders, HIV sexual risk behavior, and antisocial behavior (RHC ages 24, 25; MTFS age 25).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results from the two samples were highly consistent and largely supported the heuristic model proposed by Bailey et al. (2011). Adolescent general family environment, family smoking environment, and family drinking environment predicted shared variance in problem behaviors in young adulthood. Family smoking environment predicted unique variance in young adult nicotine dependence. Family drinking environment did not appear to predict unique variance in young adult alcohol use disorder.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Organizing environmental predictors and outcomes into general and substance-specific measures provides a useful way forward in modeling complex environments and phenotypes. Results suggest that programs aimed at preventing young adult problem behaviors should target general family environment and family smoking and drinking environments in adolescence.
authors.affiliation: Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Avenue NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, United States. Electronic address: jabailey@uw.edu.
authors.forename: J A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Bailey
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, 75 E River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
authors.forename: D R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Samek
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, 75 E River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
authors.forename: M A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Keyes
authors.affiliation: Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Avenue NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, United States.
authors.forename: K G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Hill
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, University of Michigan, 4250 Plymouth Road, Ann Arbor, MI 48109, United States.
authors.forename: B M
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Hicks
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, 75 E River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: McGue
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Minnesota, 75 E River Road, Minneapolis, MN 55455, United States.
authors.forename: W G
authors.initials: WG
authors.lastname: Iacono
authors.affiliation: Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Avenue NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, United States.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Epstein
authors.affiliation: Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Avenue NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, United States.
authors.forename: R F
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: Catalano
authors.affiliation: Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Avenue NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, United States.
authors.forename: K P
authors.initials: KP
authors.lastname: Haggerty
authors.affiliation: Social Development Research Group, School of Social Work, University of Washington, 9725 3rd Avenue NE, Suite 401, Seattle, WA 98115, United States.
authors.forename: J D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Hawkins
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D019973:Alcohol-Related Disorders / Q000523:psychology*; D000987:Antisocial Personality Disorder / Q000523:psychology*; D002648:Child; D005192:Family Health; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008910:Minnesota; D015205:Northwestern United States; D012307:Risk Factors; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000523:psychology; D014029:Tobacco Use Disorder / Q000523:psychology*; D014427:Twins / Q000523:psychology; D047568:Unsafe Sex / Q000523:psychology*; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Alcohol misuse; Measuring environment for GxE; Nicotine dependence; Problem behavior; Replication