title: Communicating risk and promoting disease mitigation measures in epidemics and emerging disease settings.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This review aims to identify and assess evidence on interventions to communicate risk and promote disease mitigation measures in epidemics and emerging disease outbreak settings. The study focuses on data that are relevant to low and middle-income country (LMIC) settings.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted a comprehensive literature search using five major electronic databases (Pubmed Medline, Biomed Central, EMBASE, Science of Citation Index, and Cochrane Library) and other sources to identify relevant studies published from January 2002 to July 2013. The review was guided by the socio-ecological model/perspective of public health and the ideation theory and focused on interventions at the community, healthcare, and multi-sectoral settings, which also reflect key intervention levels of the Ottawa Charter for Health Promotion. Eligible quantitative studies were selected according to specific study criteria and assessed using the Critical Appraisal Skills Program (CASP) framework. Conversely, qualitative studies, reviews, case studies, and editorials were not included. Studies were selected by two independent reviewers.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Twenty-nine relevant studies from 16 countries were included. Most studies focused on a single intervention or intervention level, rather than multi-sectoral interventions. The majority of the evidence relates to programs aimed at behavioral and social results (or relevant intermediate steps) within a specific population group. Two studies included implications for improvements in health service delivery, two studies examined the intervention's impact on health systems-related outcomes, and three had also implications for environmental health outcomes. Cost- and health equity-related implications for select evidence were also discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The paucity of well-designed quantitative evaluations of interventions to communicate health risk and promote disease control measures in LMICs does not allow for any definitive conclusions. Yet, the review identified several promising interventions and areas for future investigation. Among them, community-based and participatory interventions seemed to be central within epidemic and emerging disease settings, particularly in low-resource settings. Yet, evidence on their effectiveness is not conclusive and needs to be explored by future studies. Other promising areas for future investigation include multi-component and multi-sectoral approaches to intervention design. Major research gaps referred to any evaluation of the impact of these kinds of interventions on health policy adoption and/or implementation, and social determinants of health. Research on cost-effectiveness also needs to be strengthened. This review identified several research gaps and questions, and discusses potential future directions for increasing capacity for future and more rigorous assessments.
authors.forename: Renata
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Schiavo
authors.forename: May
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: May Leung
authors.forename: Mason
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Brown
mesh_terms: D021821:Communicable Diseases, Emerging / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D003142:Communication; D003906:Developing Countries; D058872:Epidemics; D005260:Female; D006293:Health Promotion; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011634:Public Health; D040242:Risk Reduction Behavior
keywords: Behavior change communication,; Communication preparedness,; Cost,; Development communication,; Emerging diseases,; Epidemics,; Global health,; Health communication,; Health equity,; Health promotion,; Health service delivery,; Health systems,; Low and middle-income countries (LMICs),; Outbreak control,; Public health,; Risk communication,; Social change communication,; Vulnerable and underserved populations