title: How musical training affects cognitive development: rhythm, reward and other modulating variables.
abstract: Musical training has recently gained additional interest in education as increasing neuroscientific research demonstrates its positive effects on brain development. Neuroimaging revealed plastic changes in the brains of adult musicians but it is still unclear to what extent they are the product of intensive music training rather than of other factors, such as preexisting biological markers of musicality. In this review, we synthesize a large body of studies demonstrating that benefits of musical training extend beyond the skills it directly aims to train and last well into adulthood. For example, children who undergo musical training have better verbal memory, second language pronunciation accuracy, reading ability and executive functions. Learning to play an instrument as a child may even predict academic performance and IQ in young adulthood. The degree of observed structural and functional adaptation in the brain correlates with intensity and duration of practice. Importantly, the effects on cognitive development depend on the timing of musical initiation due to sensitive periods during development, as well as on several other modulating variables. Notably, we point to motivation, reward and social context of musical education, which are important yet neglected factors affecting the long-term benefits of musical training. Further, we introduce the notion of rhythmic entrainment and suggest that it may represent a mechanism supporting learning and development of executive functions. It also hones temporal processing and orienting of attention in time that may underlie enhancements observed in reading and verbal memory. We conclude that musical training uniquely engenders near and far transfer effects, preparing a foundation for a range of skills, and thus fostering cognitive development.
authors.affiliation: Department of Fundamental Neurosciences, (CMU), University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland ; Swiss Centre of Affective Sciences, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Ewa A
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Miendlarzewska
authors.affiliation: Swiss Centre of Affective Sciences, University of Geneva Geneva, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Wiebke J
authors.initials: WJ
authors.lastname: Trost
keywords: brain plasticity; developmental neuroscience; music education; musical training; rhythmic entrainment