title: Hearing loss in syndromic craniosynostoses: introduction and consideration of mechanisms.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  There are a number of craniosynostosis syndromes with hearing loss-including Muenke, Apert, Pfeiffer, Crouzon, Beare-Stevenson, Crouzon with acanthosis nigricans, and Jackson-Weiss syndromes-that result from mutations in the fibroblast growth factor receptor (FGFR) genes. Studies of FGFRs and their ligands, fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), have revealed clues to the precise contribution of aberrant FGFR signaling to inner ear morphogenesis and the hearing loss encountered in craniosynostoses. The purpose of this article is to review basic studies of FGFRs with emphasis on their function and expression in the inner ear and surrounding structures.
  
  
  METHODS
  A Medline search was performed to find basic science articles regarding FGFR, their ligands, and their expression and relevant mouse models. Additional items searched included clinical descriptions and studies of individuals with FGFR-related craniosynostosis syndromes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The FGF signaling pathway is essential for the morphogensis and proper function of the inner ear and auditory sensory epithelium.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The variable auditory phenotypes seen in individuals with Muenke syndrome may have a genetic basis, likely due to multiple interacting factors in the genetic environment or modifying factors. Further analysis and studies of mouse models of Muenke syndrome, in particular, may provide clues to the specific effects of the defining mutation in FGFR3 in the inner ear not only at birth but also into adulthood. In particular, investigations into these models may give insight into the variable expression and incomplete penetrance of this phenotype.
authors.forename: Nneamaka B
authors.initials: NB
authors.lastname: Agochukwu
authors.forename: Benjamin D
authors.initials: BD
authors.lastname: Solomon
authors.forename: Maximilian
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Muenke
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002648:Child; D003398:Craniosynostoses / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000235:genetics / Q000628:therapy; D003638:Deafness / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000235:genetics / Q000628:therapy; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D015316:Genetic Therapy; D034381:Hearing Loss / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000235:genetics / Q000628:therapy; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D051498:Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 3 / Q000235:genetics; D017468:Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor / Q000235:genetics; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000235:genetics; D013577:Syndrome
chemical_list: D017468:Receptors, Fibroblast Growth Factor; C496365:FGFR3 protein, human; D051498:Receptor, Fibroblast Growth Factor, Type 3