title: [Non-medical applications for brain MRI: Ethical considerations].
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The recent neuroimaging techniques offer the possibility to better understand complex cognitive processes that are involved in mental disorders and thus have become cornerstone tools for research in psychiatry. The performances of functional magnetic resonance imaging are not limited to medical research and are used in non-medical fields. These recent applications represent new challenges for bioethics.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this article we aim at discussing the new ethical issues raised by the applications of the latest neuroimaging technologies to non-medical fields.
  
  
  METHODS
  We included a selection of peer-reviewed English medical articles after a search on NCBI Pubmed database and Google scholar from 2000 to 2013. We screened bibliographical tables for supplementary references. Websites of governmental French institutions implicated in ethical questions were also screened for governmental reports.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Findings of brain areas supporting emotional responses and regulation have been used for marketing research, also called neuromarketing. The discovery of different brain activation patterns in antisocial disorder has led to changes in forensic psychiatry with the use of imaging techniques with unproven validity. Automated classification algorithms and multivariate statistical analyses of brain images have been applied to brain-reading techniques, aiming at predicting unconscious neural processes in humans. We finally report the current position of the French legislation recently revised and discuss the technical limits of such techniques.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In the near future, brain imaging could find clinical applications in psychiatry as diagnostic or predictive tools. However, the latest advances in brain imaging are also used in non-scientific fields raising key ethical questions. Involvement of neuroscientists, psychiatrists, physicians but also of citizens in neuroethics discussions is crucial to challenge the risk of unregulated uses of brain imaging.
authors.affiliation: Pôle de psychiatrie des hôpitaux universitaires Henri-Mondor, AP-HP, 40, rue de Mesly, 94000 Créteil, France; Inserm unité 955, IMRB, équipe 15 « psychiatrie génétique », 94000 Créteil, France; Fondation FondaMental, 40, rue de Mesly, 94000 Créteil, France; Faculté de médecine, université Paris-Est Créteil, 94000 Créteil, France.
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sarrazin
authors.affiliation: Collège de France, 75005 Paris, France.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Fagot-Largeault
authors.affiliation: Pôle de psychiatrie des hôpitaux universitaires Henri-Mondor, AP-HP, 40, rue de Mesly, 94000 Créteil, France; Inserm unité 955, IMRB, équipe 15 « psychiatrie génétique », 94000 Créteil, France; Fondation FondaMental, 40, rue de Mesly, 94000 Créteil, France; Faculté de médecine, université Paris-Est Créteil, 94000 Créteil, France.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Leboyer
authors.affiliation: Pôle de psychiatrie des hôpitaux universitaires Henri-Mondor, AP-HP, 40, rue de Mesly, 94000 Créteil, France; Inserm unité 955, IMRB, équipe 15 « psychiatrie génétique », 94000 Créteil, France; Fondation FondaMental, 40, rue de Mesly, 94000 Créteil, France; Plateforme de neuro-imagerie NeuroSpin, commissariat à l'energie atomique, centre d'études de Saclay, 91191 Gif-sur-Yvette, France. Electronic address: josselin.houenou@inserm.fr.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Houenou
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D000987:Antisocial Personality Disorder / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy; D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D003258:Consumer Behavior; D003299:Cooperative Behavior; D004644:Emotions / Q000502:physiology*; D004992:Ethics, Medical; D005602:France; D059907:Functional Neuroimaging / Q000941:ethics*; D006801:Humans; D007090:Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted; D033183:Interdisciplinary Communication; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Q000941:ethics*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D040241:Social Marketing / Q000941:ethics; D014473:Unconscious, Psychology
keywords: Ethics; Imagerie par résonance magnétique; Magnetic resonance imaging; Neuromarketing; Neuroscience; Neuroéthique; Psychiatrie; Psychiatry