title: The role of late I Na in development of cardiac arrhythmias.
abstract: Late I Na is an integral part of the sodium current, which persists long after the fast-inactivating component. The magnitude of the late I Na is relatively small in all species and in all types of cardiomyocytes as compared with the amplitude of the fast sodium current, but it contributes significantly to the shape and duration of the action potential. This late component had been shown to increase in several acquired or congenital conditions, including hypoxia, oxidative stress, and heart failure, or due to mutations in SCN5A, which encodes the α-subunit of the sodium channel, as well as in channel-interacting proteins, including multiple β subunits and anchoring proteins. Patients with enhanced late I Na exhibit the type-3 long QT syndrome (LQT3) characterized by high propensity for the life-threatening ventricular arrhythmias, such as Torsade de Pointes (TdP), as well as for atrial fibrillation. There are several distinct mechanisms of arrhythmogenesis due to abnormal late I Na, including abnormal automaticity, early and delayed after depolarization-induced triggered activity, and dramatic increase of ventricular dispersion of repolarization. Many local anesthetic and antiarrhythmic agents have a higher potency to block late I Na as compared with fast I Na. Several novel compounds, including ranolazine, GS-458967, and F15845, appear to be the most selective inhibitors of cardiac late I Na reported to date. Selective inhibition of late I Na is expected to be an effective strategy for correcting these acquired and congenital channelopathies.
authors.affiliation: Masonic Medical Research Laboratory, 2150 Bleecker Street, Utica, NY, 13501, USA, ca@mmrl.edu.
authors.forename: Charles
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Antzelevitch
authors.forename: Vladislav
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Nesterenko
authors.forename: John C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Shryock
authors.forename: Sridharan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Rajamani
authors.forename: Yejia
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Song
authors.forename: Luiz
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Belardinelli
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000889:Anti-Arrhythmia Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use; D001145:Arrhythmias, Cardiac / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000503:physiopathology; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease; D006339:Heart Rate / Q000187:drug effects; D006801:Humans; D032383:Myocytes, Cardiac / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism*; D010641:Phenotype; D015398:Signal Transduction; D012964:Sodium / Q000378:metabolism*; D026941:Sodium Channel Blockers / Q000627:therapeutic use; D015222:Sodium Channels / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D000889:Anti-Arrhythmia Agents; D026941:Sodium Channel Blockers; D015222:Sodium Channels; D012964:Sodium
references.citation: Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2011 Sep;301(3):C577-86
references.pmid: 21677263
references.citation: Circ Res. 1997 Mar;80(3):370-6
references.pmid: 9048657
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 2004 Nov;66(5):1201-12
references.pmid: 15308760
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2010;7(2):251-7
references.pmid: 20042373
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2012 Dec;23(12):1364-71
references.pmid: 22809087
references.citation: Expert Opin Investig Drugs. 2007 Apr;16(4):519-32
references.pmid: 17371199
references.citation: Cell Signal. 2007 Sep;19(9):1820-9
references.pmid: 17629453
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008 Dec;19(12):1289-93
references.pmid: 18662191
references.citation: Basic Res Cardiol. 1986 May-Jun;81(3):244-57
references.pmid: 3019294
references.citation: Circulation. 2006 May 23;113(20):2462-72
references.pmid: 16717165
references.citation: Circ Res. 2005 Dec 9;97(12):1314-22
references.pmid: 16269653
references.citation: Circulation. 2009 Mar 31;119(12):1562-75
references.pmid: 19289639
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1997 Nov;8(11):1269-79
references.pmid: 9395170
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2012 Mar;9(3):422-9
references.pmid: 22019863
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2009 Oct;54(4):279-86
references.pmid: 19333133
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 1999 Apr;42(1):254-61
references.pmid: 10435018
references.citation: Circulation. 2000 Aug 8;102(6):706-12
references.pmid: 10931813
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 2009 Jan;156(2):214-25
references.pmid: 19133985
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2013 Sep 1;99(4):600-11
references.pmid: 23752976
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2011 Jun;57(6):639-47
references.pmid: 21633249
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 2010 Jul;160(5):1072-82
references.pmid: 20590601
references.citation: J Physiol. 1997 May 1;500 ( Pt 3):631-42
references.pmid: 9161981
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2003 Jul 4;278(27):25063-71
references.pmid: 12692124
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2003 Oct 3;278(40):38593-600
references.pmid: 14514795
references.citation: Circulation. 2001 Sep 11;104(11):1306-12
references.pmid: 11551884
references.citation: J Gen Physiol. 1983 May;81(5):613-42
references.pmid: 6306139
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Nov 15;89(22):10910-4
references.pmid: 1332060
references.citation: Rev Physiol Biochem Pharmacol. 1982;92:1-74
references.pmid: 6278559
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011 Oct;301(4):H1606-14
references.pmid: 21821778
references.citation: Circ Res. 1985 Oct;57(4):578-90
references.pmid: 2412723
references.citation: J Physiol. 1992;453:219-31
references.pmid: 1334512
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2010 Feb 1;85(3):454-63
references.pmid: 19797425
references.citation: Circ Res. 2006 Aug 18;99(4):407-14
references.pmid: 16857961
references.citation: Eur Biophys J. 2002 Sep;31(5):323-30
references.pmid: 12202908
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2005 Mar;38(3):475-83
references.pmid: 15733907
references.citation: Am J Cardiol. 2012 May 15;109(10):1459-65
references.pmid: 22360817
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2011 Aug;8(8):1281-90
references.pmid: 21421082
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2013 Jan;344(1):23-32
references.pmid: 23010360
references.citation: Cell Mol Life Sci. 1999 Mar;55(3):494-505
references.pmid: 10228563
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 2008 Mar;153(6):1133-42
references.pmid: 18071303
references.citation: Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2000 Dec;362(6):453-79
references.pmid: 11138838
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2009 Sep;297(3):H1048-57
references.pmid: 19592609
references.citation: J Physiol. 1987 Nov;392:523-42
references.pmid: 2451728
references.citation: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2010 May 25;55(21):2330-42
references.pmid: 20488304
references.citation: Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2012 Apr;5(2):371-9
references.pmid: 22407414
references.citation: Future Cardiol. 2006 Jul;2(4):467-76
references.pmid: 19774097
references.citation: Biophys J. 1987 Jan;51(1):109-14
references.pmid: 2432950
references.citation: Circulation. 2013 Feb 5;127(5):575-84
references.pmid: 23271797
references.citation: J Physiol Sci. 2010 Jul;60(4):245-57
references.pmid: 20490740
references.citation: Circulation. 1998 Dec 8;98(23):2545-52
references.pmid: 9843461
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1991 Sep;18(3):415-28
references.pmid: 1720842
references.citation: Circulation. 2006 Dec 12;114(24):2584-94
references.pmid: 17145985
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2008 Mar;19(3):301-8
references.pmid: 18031511
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2006 Jul;318(1):214-22
references.pmid: 16565163
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2012 Mar;52(3):608-19
references.pmid: 22198344
references.citation: Circ Res. 1973 May;32(5):600-9
references.pmid: 4713202
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 1988 Jan 19;145(3):313-22
references.pmid: 2450764
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1999 Aug;10(8):1124-52
references.pmid: 10466495
references.citation: Curr Mol Pharmacol. 2010 Nov;3(3):129-44
references.pmid: 20565383
references.citation: Heart. 2006 Jul;92 Suppl 4:iv1-iv5
references.pmid: 16775091
references.citation: Proc Jpn Acad Ser B Phys Biol Sci. 2008;84(5):147-54
references.pmid: 18941294
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2004 Aug;44(2):192-9
references.pmid: 15243300
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2010 May;298(5):H1375-81
references.pmid: 20190097
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2001 May;33(5):923-32
references.pmid: 11343415
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1992 Aug;20(2):324-31
references.pmid: 1381026
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011 Oct;301(4):H1615-24
references.pmid: 21821780
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2004 Aug;310(2):599-605
references.pmid: 15031300
references.citation: Circ Res. 2000 Nov 10;87(10):910-4
references.pmid: 11073887
references.citation: Nature. 1995 Aug 24;376(6542):683-5
references.pmid: 7651517
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2007 Jul;4(7):964-72
references.pmid: 17599687
references.citation: Nat Rev Cardiol. 2009 May;6(5):337-48
references.pmid: 19377496
references.citation: J Electrocardiol. 1999;32 Suppl:177-84
references.pmid: 10688323
references.citation: Pflugers Arch. 1989 Jul;414(3):354-9
references.pmid: 2550884
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2008 May;294(5):H2031-9
references.pmid: 18310511
references.citation: Circulation. 2001 Jun 12;103(23):2851-6
references.pmid: 11401944
references.citation: Circ Res. 1980 Aug;47(2):267-77
references.pmid: 7397958
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2000 Apr 25;97(9):4944-9
references.pmid: 10781102
references.citation: Circ Res. 1994 Jul;75(1):114-22
references.pmid: 8013069
references.citation: J Intern Med. 2006 Jan;259(1):48-58
references.pmid: 16336513
references.citation: Circ Res. 1999 Oct 15;85(8):723-30
references.pmid: 10521246
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2006 Dec;116(12):3127-38
references.pmid: 17124532
references.citation: Prog Biophys Mol Biol. 2006 Jan-Apr;90(1-3):249-69
references.pmid: 16165196
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2009 Oct;297(4):H1254-62
references.pmid: 19700626
references.citation: Circulation. 2008 Apr 15;117(15):1927-35
references.pmid: 18378609
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2006 May;17 Suppl 1:S15-S20
references.pmid: 16686671
references.citation: J Physiol. 1978 Aug;281:187-208
references.pmid: 702368
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2007 Nov;43(5):636-47
references.pmid: 17884088
references.citation: J Pharmacol Toxicol Methods. 2011 May-Jun;63(3):258-68
references.pmid: 21194571
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2004 Jul 1;63(1):69-76
references.pmid: 15194463
references.citation: Physiol Rev. 2011 Jul;91(3):889-915
references.pmid: 21742790
references.citation: Circulation. 2004 Oct 12;110(15):2163-7
references.pmid: 15466643
references.citation: Cell Calcium. 1988 Dec;9(5-6):247-56
references.pmid: 3066490
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1996 Nov;7(11):1074-81
references.pmid: 8930739
references.citation: Circ Res. 2009 Jan 2;104(1):79-86
references.pmid: 19038865
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1993 Jul;22(1):120-5
references.pmid: 7690083
references.citation: Circ Res. 2000 Oct 27;87(9):774-80
references.pmid: 11055981
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2001 Aug;281(2):H689-97
references.pmid: 11454573
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2004 Mar;15(3):323-31
references.pmid: 15030424
references.citation: Am J Physiol. 1979 Apr;236(4):H561-7
references.pmid: 434221
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 1991 Oct;104(2):483-9
references.pmid: 1665739
references.citation: Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2012 Apr 15;302(8):C1141-51
references.pmid: 22189558
references.citation: Circ Res. 1987 Oct;61(4):498-503
references.pmid: 3652397
references.citation: Circulation. 1994 Jul;90(1):391-9
references.pmid: 8026023
references.citation: Science. 2002 Aug 23;297(5585):1333-6
references.pmid: 12193783
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2004 Jul;37(1):91-100
references.pmid: 15242739
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2009 Aug;330(2):550-7
references.pmid: 19403851
references.citation: J Physiol. 1985 Oct;367:291-308
references.pmid: 4057100
references.citation: Circulation. 1998 Nov 24;98(21):2314-22
references.pmid: 9826320
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2005 Aug 15;67(3):448-58
references.pmid: 15919069
references.citation: Nature. 1999 Aug 5;400(6744):566-9
references.pmid: 10448858
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2010 Apr;21(4):441-7
references.pmid: 19909385
references.citation: Eur Heart J. 1998 Jul;19(7):1054-62
references.pmid: 9717041
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2010 Jun;7(6):771-8
references.pmid: 20226894
references.citation: Pacing Clin Electrophysiol. 2013 Dec;36(12):1512-5
references.pmid: 24117780
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 2008 Jun;73(6):1622-31
references.pmid: 18326052
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2006 May;17 Suppl 1:S71-S78
references.pmid: 16686685
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2000 Nov;48(2):265-73
references.pmid: 11054473
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 1986 Nov;78(5):1185-92
references.pmid: 3771791
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2002 Nov;110(9):1251-62
references.pmid: 12417563
references.citation: Circ Res. 1992 Nov;71(5):1231-41
references.pmid: 1327577
references.citation: Pflugers Arch. 1987 Jan;408(1):18-26
references.pmid: 2434919
references.citation: Circulation. 2004 Sep 14;110(11):1358-63
references.pmid: 15313939
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1996 Jan;28(1):123-31
references.pmid: 8745220
references.citation: Circulation. 2007 Sep 25;116(13):1449-57
references.pmid: 17785620
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2006 Feb;316(2):718-26
references.pmid: 16234410
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2005 Feb 1;65(2):397-404
references.pmid: 15639478
references.citation: J Physiol. 1981 May;314:445-56
references.pmid: 7310698
references.citation: Circ Res. 2010 Aug 20;107(4):457-65
references.pmid: 20724725
references.citation: Circ Res. 2003 May 2;92(8):904-11
references.pmid: 12676813
references.citation: Circulation. 2004 Aug 24;110(8):904-10
references.pmid: 15302796
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2008 Apr;5(4):585-90
references.pmid: 18362027
references.citation: Jpn J Physiol. 1987;37(1):59-79
references.pmid: 3497297
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2006 May;17 Suppl 1:S169-S177
references.pmid: 16686675
references.citation: Cardiovasc Drug Rev. 2004 Spring;22(1):17-26
references.pmid: 14978516
references.citation: Circ Res. 1982 Jan;50(1):17-27
references.pmid: 6274542
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2002 Nov;34(11):1477-89
references.pmid: 12431447
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Nov 12;93(23):13200-5
references.pmid: 8917568
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 1990 Nov 13;190(3):313-20
references.pmid: 2272369
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2009 Feb;6(2):251-9
references.pmid: 19187920
references.citation: Circ Res. 1972 Mar;30(3):293-300
references.pmid: 5060431
references.citation: Circ Res. 2005 May 13;96(9):991-8
references.pmid: 15831816
references.citation: Am Heart J. 1983 Oct;106(4 Pt 2):798-811
references.pmid: 6310978
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 1993 Sep;110(1):183-92
references.pmid: 8220878
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2013 Jul;10(7):1036-43
references.pmid: 23524321
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1997 Aug;282(2):707-14
references.pmid: 9262334
references.citation: Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Apr;118(1):138-51
references.pmid: 18378319
references.citation: J Electrocardiol. 2007 Nov-Dec;40(6 Suppl):S142-4
references.pmid: 17993311
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011 Jul;301(1):H209-20
references.pmid: 21536842
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2008 Feb 1;77(3):481-8
references.pmid: 18006430
references.citation: Circ Res. 1989 Nov;65(5):1247-62
references.pmid: 2553292
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2000 Feb;32(2):261-72
references.pmid: 10722802
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2000 Sep 15;275(37):28810-5
references.pmid: 10833522
references.citation: Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2008 Dec;1(5):370-8
references.pmid: 19808432
references.citation: Circulation. 2006 Nov 14;114(20):2104-12
references.pmid: 17060380
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 1987 Oct 6;142(1):137-40
references.pmid: 3691632
references.citation: Circ Res. 2011 Mar 4;108(5):555-65
references.pmid: 21252154
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2006 Dec;41(6):1031-8
references.pmid: 17027025
references.citation: J Gen Physiol. 2003 Mar;121(3):199-214
references.pmid: 12601084
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1985 May;17(5):467-76
references.pmid: 2411942
references.citation: Circ Res. 1962 Mar;10:306-12
references.pmid: 13922328
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2011 Oct;51(4):468-73
references.pmid: 21276796
references.citation: Prog Biophys Mol Biol. 2008 Oct-Nov;98(2-3):120-36
references.pmid: 19027780
references.citation: Europace. 2008 Oct;10(10):1218-23
references.pmid: 18757866
references.citation: Circulation. 2007 Oct 9;116(15):1647-52
references.pmid: 17804441
references.citation: Circulation. 2011 Apr 26;123(16):1713-20
references.pmid: 21482963
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2006 May;17 Suppl 1:S96-S103
references.pmid: 16686689
references.citation: Circulation. 1997 Sep 16;96(6):2038-47
references.pmid: 9323097
references.citation: J Physiol. 2011 May 1;589(Pt 9):2363-81
references.pmid: 21486795
references.citation: Am J Physiol. 1998 May;274(5):H1643-54
references.pmid: 9612375
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2001 Aug 17;276(33):30623-30
references.pmid: 11410597
references.citation: Circ Heart Fail. 2009 Nov;2(6):664-75
references.pmid: 19919992
references.citation: Circ Res. 1989 Feb;64(2):389-97
references.pmid: 2536304
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1996 Jun;7(6):503-11
references.pmid: 8743756
references.citation: Circ Res. 1968 Sep;23(3):387-96
references.pmid: 5676451
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Jun 15;101(24):9137-42
references.pmid: 15178757
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2008 Oct;5(10):1434-40
references.pmid: 18929331
references.citation: Circ Res. 2008 Aug 29;103(5):509-18
references.pmid: 18635824
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2010 Jan;7(1):117-26
references.pmid: 19875343
references.citation: Basic Res Cardiol. 2011 Mar;106(2):263-72
references.pmid: 21174213
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 2010 Sep;161(1):79-91
references.pmid: 20718741
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1994 Oct;5(10):824-37
references.pmid: 7874328
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Jul 8;105(27):9355-60
references.pmid: 18591664
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 1997 Nov;8(11):1280-90
references.pmid: 9395171
references.citation: Circulation. 2001 Sep 11;104(11):1299-305
references.pmid: 11551883
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2007 Nov 30;282(48):35078-87
references.pmid: 17923476
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2012 Jan 1;93(1):12-23
references.pmid: 21937582
references.citation: Am J Physiol. 1989 Apr;256(4 Pt 1):C813-22
references.pmid: 2705515
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 1991 Feb;23 Suppl 1:73-83
references.pmid: 1645414
references.citation: Eur J Heart Fail. 2007 Mar;9(3):219-27
references.pmid: 17067855
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2010 Jan;48(1):2-11
references.pmid: 19744495
references.citation: Circ Res. 2010 Apr 2;106(6):1134-44
references.pmid: 20056922
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2009 Oct;297(4):H1235-42
references.pmid: 19648256
references.citation: Am Heart J. 1948 Aug;36(2):241-51
references.pmid: 18873261
references.citation: Naunyn Schmiedebergs Arch Pharmacol. 2008 Jul;378(1):73-83
references.pmid: 18458880
references.citation: Cardiovasc Hematol Agents Med Chem. 2008 Oct;6(4):348-59
references.pmid: 18855648
references.citation: Int J Cardiol. 2011 Mar 3;147(2):239-45
references.pmid: 19762097
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 1991 Oct 22;203(3):371-8
references.pmid: 1663453
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2008 Feb;44(2):241-51
references.pmid: 17961592
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2005 Oct;315(1):16-23
references.pmid: 15980056
references.citation: J Med Chem. 2002 Aug 15;45(17):3755-64
references.pmid: 12166948
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2002 Sep;40(3):346-55
references.pmid: 12198320
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2008 Jun;118(6):2219-29
references.pmid: 18451998
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2012 Jun 1;302(11):H2381-95
references.pmid: 22427523
references.citation: Pharmacol Ther. 2008 Sep;119(3):326-39
references.pmid: 18662720
references.citation: Circ Res. 1980 Jan;46(1):117-24
references.pmid: 7349912
references.citation: Biochim Biophys Acta. 1991 Oct 26;1095(2):175-81
references.pmid: 1657196
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 1981 Nov;15(11):611-4
references.pmid: 6459847
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2000 Nov;279(5):H2303-9
references.pmid: 11045966
references.citation: Biophys J. 1992 Sep;63(3):654-62
references.pmid: 1330034
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2011 May;337(2):513-23
references.pmid: 21325441
references.citation: J Physiol Sci. 2009 May;59(3):217-25
references.pmid: 19340536
references.citation: Front Pharmacol. 2010 Dec 31;1:144
references.pmid: 21833183
references.citation: Circ Res. 1982 Feb;50(2):210-7
references.pmid: 7055855
references.citation: Mol Pharmacol. 2005 Dec;68(6):1611-22
references.pmid: 16174788
references.citation: Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2008 Aug;1(3):193-201
references.pmid: 19684871
references.citation: FASEB J. 1989 Jun;3(8):1963-7
references.pmid: 2542113
references.citation: Circ Res. 1999 Apr 2;84(6):713-21
references.pmid: 10189359
references.citation: Hum Mol Genet. 1995 Sep;4(9):1603-7
references.pmid: 8541846
references.citation: Am J Physiol. 1995 Jun;268(6 Pt 2):H2405-17
references.pmid: 7611493
references.citation: Circ Arrhythm Electrophysiol. 2010 Dec;3(6):646-56
references.pmid: 20852297
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 2008 May;51(5):443-9
references.pmid: 18398379
references.citation: Heart. 2006 Jul;92 Suppl 4:iv6-iv14
references.pmid: 16775092
references.citation: J Physiol. 2003 Apr 1;548(Pt 1):147-65
references.pmid: 12588904
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 1998 Nov;40(2):322-31
references.pmid: 9893726
references.citation: J Gen Physiol. 1985 Jul;86(1):89-104
references.pmid: 2411848
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2008 Jul;45(1):32-43
references.pmid: 18439620
references.citation: J Membr Biol. 2007 Feb;215(2-3):195-204
references.pmid: 17578633
references.citation: Circ Res. 1977 Oct;41(4):434-45
references.pmid: 902353
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2009 Apr;20(4):401-7
references.pmid: 19017345
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 1991 Oct;25(10):815-9
references.pmid: 1684137
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2008 Apr;294(4):H1597-608
references.pmid: 18203851
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Electrophysiol. 2006 May;17 Suppl 1:S79-S85
references.pmid: 16686686
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2006 Jan;69(1):116-27
references.pmid: 16223473
references.citation: Br J Pharmacol. 2011 Sep;164(2):308-16
references.pmid: 21182492
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Pharmacol. 1995 Nov;26(5):803-9
references.pmid: 8637196
references.citation: Circulation. 2004 Mar 23;109(11):1421-7
references.pmid: 15007009
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 1998 Dec;287(3):996-1006
references.pmid: 9864285
references.citation: J Physiol. 1984 Dec;357:127-49
references.pmid: 6150992
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2010 Oct;120(10):3508-19
references.pmid: 20877009
references.citation: Circ Res. 2006 Aug 18;99(4):398-406
references.pmid: 16840718
references.citation: Cardiol J. 2008;15(2):100-21
references.pmid: 18651395
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2008 Jun 13;283(24):16537-44
references.pmid: 18408010
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2006 Jun 1;70(3):486-96
references.pmid: 16545351
references.citation: Circulation. 2002 Sep 3;106(10):1269-74
references.pmid: 12208804
references.citation: Heart Rhythm. 2008 Dec;5(12):1726-34
references.pmid: 19084812
references.citation: J Physiol. 1996 Dec 1;497 ( Pt 2):337-47
references.pmid: 8961179
references.citation: J Mol Cell Cardiol. 2010 Jul;49(1):25-32
references.pmid: 20353795
references.citation: Circulation. 2007 Jul 10;116(2):134-42
references.pmid: 17592081
references.citation: Circ Res. 2011 Feb 4;108(3):294-304
references.pmid: 21164104
references.citation: Am J Cardiol. 1984 Aug 1;54(3):424-9
references.pmid: 6465028
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2004 Mar;286(3):H955-63
references.pmid: 14592940
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Feb 17;106(7):2342-7
references.pmid: 19179290
references.citation: Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2009 Jul;41(7):1471-81
references.pmid: 19401147
references.citation: J Membr Biol. 2005 Sep;207(1):35-43
references.pmid: 16463141
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2009 Nov 27;284(48):33265-74
references.pmid: 19808664
references.citation: Circulation. 1993 Sep;88(3):1177-89
references.pmid: 7689041