title: Cocaine alters cytokine profiles in HIV-1-infected African American individuals in the DrexelMed HIV/AIDS genetic analysis cohort.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  This study evaluated the relationship between illicit drug use and HIV-1 disease severity in HIV-1-infected patients enrolled in the DREXELMED HIV/AIDS Genetic Analysis Cohort. Because cocaine is known to have immunomodulatory effects, the cytokine profiles of preferential nonusers, cocaine users, and multidrug users were analyzed to understand the effects of cocaine on cytokine modulation and HIV-1 disease severity.
  
  
  METHODS
  Patients within the cohort were assessed approximately every 6 months for HIV-1 clinical markers and for history of illicit drug, alcohol, and tobacco use. The Luminex human cytokine 30-plex panel was used for cytokine quantitation. Analysis was performed using a newly developed biostatistical model.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Substance abuse was common within the cohort. Using the drug screens at the time of each visit, the subjects in the cohort were categorized as preferential nonusers, cocaine users, or multidrug users. The overall health of the nonuser population was better than that of the cocaine users, with peak and current viral loads in nonusers substantially lower than those in cocaine and multidrug users. Among the 30 cytokines investigated, differential levels were established within the 3 populations. The T-helper 2 cytokines, interleukin-4 and -10, known to play a critical role during HIV-1 infection, were positively associated with increasing cocaine use. Clinical parameters such as latest viral load, CD4 T-cell counts, and CD4:CD8 ratio were also significantly associated with cocaine use, depending on the statistical model used.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Based on these assessments, cocaine use seems to be associated with more severe HIV-1 disease.
authors.affiliation: *Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA; †Center for Molecular Virology and Translational Neuroscience, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA; ‡Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, Center for Clinical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA; §Center for Clinical and Translational Medicine, Institute for Molecular Medicine and Infectious Disease, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA; and ‖Division of Infectious Diseases and HIV Medicine, Department of Medicine, Drexel University College of Medicine, Philadelphia, PA.
authors.forename: Nirzari
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Parikh
authors.forename: Will
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Dampier
authors.forename: Rui
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Feng
authors.forename: Shendra R
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Passic
authors.forename: Wen
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Zhong
authors.forename: Brian
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Frantz
authors.forename: Brandon
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Blakey
authors.forename: Benjamas
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Aiamkitsumrit
authors.forename: Vanessa
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Pirrone
authors.forename: Michael R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Nonnemacher
authors.forename: Jeffrey M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Jacobson
authors.forename: Brian
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Wigdahl
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001741:Black or African American; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000276:immunology* / Q000821:virology; D015331:Cohort Studies; D016207:Cytokines / Q000378:metabolism*; D005260:Female; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000276:immunology* / Q000821:virology; D015497:HIV-1; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012720:Severity of Illness Index; D019562:Viral Load
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines
references.citation: J Immunol. 1999 Jun 15;162(12):7534-42
references.pmid: 10358209
references.citation: J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2009 Jan 1;50(1):93-9
references.pmid: 19295339
references.citation: Immunopharmacol Immunotoxicol. 2000 Aug;22(3):401-21
references.pmid: 10946822
references.citation: AIDS. 2009 Oct 23;23(16):2223-6
references.pmid: 19752716
references.citation: Infection. 1997 Nov-Dec;25(6):381-2
references.pmid: 9427061
references.citation: AIDS. 2008 Jan 30;22(3):357-65
references.pmid: 18195562
references.citation: PLoS One. 2012;7(2):e30881
references.pmid: 22363505
references.citation: J Gen Intern Med. 2002 May;17(5):377-81
references.pmid: 12047736
references.citation: J Immunol. 2004 Feb 15;172(4):2059-66
references.pmid: 14764670
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2003 Oct;112(7):1058-66
references.pmid: 14523043
references.citation: J Immunol. 1996 Jun 1;156(11):4492-7
references.pmid: 8666825
references.citation: J Leukoc Biol. 2005 Dec;78(6):1198-203
references.pmid: 16204638
references.citation: Eur J Immunol. 1998 Oct;28(10):3280-90
references.pmid: 9808197
references.citation: Int J Immunopharmacol. 1994 Apr;16(4):295-300
references.pmid: 8045669
references.citation: J Immunol. 2002 Apr 15;168(8):4221-30
references.pmid: 11937584
references.citation: J Allergy Clin Immunol. 2006 Feb;117(2 Suppl Mini-Primer):S441-5
references.pmid: 16455343
references.citation: AIDS. 1998 Mar 5;12(4):373-9
references.pmid: 9520166
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Jul 1;89(13):6065-9
references.pmid: 1385868
references.citation: AIDS. 1994 Jun;8(6):757-62
references.pmid: 8086133
references.citation: AIDS. 2002 Mar 29;16(5):767-74
references.pmid: 11964533
references.citation: Rev Inst Med Trop Sao Paulo. 1998 Nov-Dec;40(6):351-4
references.pmid: 10436654
references.citation: J Immunol. 1990 Jan 15;144(2):480-4
references.pmid: 2295799
references.citation: J Immunol. 1990 Dec 1;145(11):3796-806
references.pmid: 2147202
references.citation: AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 1996 Jul 20;12(11):1053-61
references.pmid: 8827221
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1999 Jul 19;190(2):229-39
references.pmid: 10432286
references.citation: Neurosci Biobehav Rev. 2002 Jun;26(4):499-527
references.pmid: 12204195
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Oct 26;107(43):18676-81
references.pmid: 20956312
references.citation: J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2012 Jun;7(2):401-11
references.pmid: 21626125
references.citation: J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2004 Feb;75(2):298-300
references.pmid: 14742610
references.citation: AIDS. 1997 Jul 15;11(9):1111-8
references.pmid: 9233457
references.citation: J Neuroimmune Pharmacol. 2006 Sep;1(3):280-95
references.pmid: 18040805
references.citation: AIDS. 1999 Feb 4;13(2):257-62
references.pmid: 10202832
references.citation: Platelets. 2011;22(8):596-601
references.pmid: 21806491
references.citation: Immunol Today. 1993 Mar;14(3):107-11
references.pmid: 8096699
references.citation: J Pharmacol Exp Ther. 2007 Feb;320(2):507-15
references.pmid: 17068203
references.citation: J Neurovirol. 2011 Feb;17(1):92-109
references.pmid: 21225391
references.citation: Viral Immunol. 1992 Fall;5(3):185-94
references.pmid: 1358089
references.citation: Ann Allergy Asthma Immunol. 2000 Jul;85(1):9-18; quiz 18, 21
references.pmid: 10923599
references.citation: J Biomed Biotechnol. 2010;2010:548749
references.pmid: 20589074
references.citation: Mediators Inflamm. 1993;2(1):3-21
references.pmid: 18475497
references.citation: AIDS. 1996 Jan;10(1):23-30
references.pmid: 8924248
references.citation: J Neuroimmunol. 2004 Feb;147(1-2):95-8
references.pmid: 14741436
references.citation: J Community Health. 2004 Apr;29(2):117-27
references.pmid: 15065731
references.citation: Immunopharmacology. 1997 Aug;37(1):25-33
references.pmid: 9285241
references.citation: AIDS. 2011 Sep 24;25(15):1823-32
references.pmid: 21572306
references.citation: J Exp Med. 1994 Apr 1;179(4):1361-6
references.pmid: 7908324
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 1989;7:145-73
references.pmid: 2523712
references.citation: Int Immunopharmacol. 2003 Apr;3(4):581-92
references.pmid: 12689662
references.citation: Curr Opin Biotechnol. 1993 Dec;4(6):727-33
references.pmid: 7764472
references.citation: AIDS. 1991 Sep;5(9):1121-6
references.pmid: 1930775
references.citation: J Infect. 1998 Nov;37(3):282-6
references.pmid: 9892533
references.citation: Bioinformatics. 2003 Jan 22;19(2):185-93
references.pmid: 12538238
references.citation: J Ocul Biol Dis Infor. 2009 Jun;2(2):78-83
references.pmid: 19672464
references.citation: Clin Dev Immunol. 2012;2012:468107
references.pmid: 22611419
references.citation: Blood. 1997 Jan 15;89(2):570-6
references.pmid: 9002960
references.citation: AIDS Res Hum Retroviruses. 2000 Mar 1;16(4):345-53
references.pmid: 10716372
references.citation: J Acquir Immune Defic Syndr. 2011 Aug 15;57(5):396-403
references.pmid: 21602694
references.citation: Adv Exp Med Biol. 1998;437:189-98
references.pmid: 9666271