title: Funnel plot control limits to identify poorly performing healthcare providers when there is uncertainty in the value of the benchmark.
abstract: There is an increasing use of statistical methods, such as funnel plots, to identify poorly performing healthcare providers. Funnel plots comprise the construction of control limits around a benchmark and providers with outcomes falling outside the limits are investigated as potential outliers. The benchmark is usually estimated from observed data but uncertainty in this estimate is usually ignored when constructing control limits. In this paper, the use of funnel plots in the presence of uncertainty in the value of the benchmark is reviewed for outcomes from a Binomial distribution. Two methods to derive the control limits are shown: (i) prediction intervals; (ii) tolerance intervals Tolerance intervals formally include the uncertainty in the value of the benchmark while prediction intervals do not. The probability properties of 95% control limits derived using each method were investigated through hypothesised scenarios. Neither prediction intervals nor tolerance intervals produce funnel plot control limits that satisfy the nominal probability characteristics when there is uncertainty in the value of the benchmark. This is not necessarily to say that funnel plots have no role to play in healthcare, but that without the development of intervals satisfying the nominal probability characteristics they must be interpreted with care.
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK brad.manktelow@le.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Bradley N
authors.initials: BN
authors.lastname: Manktelow
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.
authors.forename: Sarah E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Seaton
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Sciences, University of Leicester, Leicester, UK.
authors.forename: T Alun
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Evans
mesh_terms: D019985:Benchmarking / Q000592:standards*; D002983:Clinical Competence; D006282:Health Personnel / Q000592:standards*; D006801:Humans; D011336:Probability; D012107:Research Design; D035501:Uncertainty
keywords: clinical performance; funnel plot; prediction interval; probability; tolerance interval