title: A problem-solving task specialized for functional neuroimaging: validation of the Scarborough adaptation of the Tower of London (S-TOL) using near-infrared spectroscopy.
abstract: Problem-solving is an executive function subserved by a network of neural structures of which the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) is central. Whereas several studies have evaluated the role of the DLPFC in problem-solving, few standardized tasks have been developed specifically for use with functional neuroimaging. The current study adapted a measure with established validity for the assessment of problem-solving abilities to design a test more suitable for functional neuroimaging protocols. The Scarborough adaptation of the Tower of London (S-TOL) was administered to 38 healthy adults while hemodynamic oxygenation of the PFC was measured using 16-channel continuous-wave functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS). Compared to a baseline condition, problems that required two or three steps to achieve a goal configuration were associated with higher activation in the left DLPFC and deactivation in the medial PFC. Individuals scoring higher in trait deliberation showed consistently higher activation in the left DLPFC regardless of task difficulty, whereas individuals lower in this trait displayed less activation when solving simple problems. Based on these results, the S-TOL may serve as a standardized task to evaluate problem-solving abilities in functional neuroimaging studies.
authors.affiliation: Clinical Neurosciences Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto, ON, Canada.
authors.forename: Anthony C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Ruocco
authors.affiliation: Clinical Neurosciences Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto, ON, Canada.
authors.forename: Achala H
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Rodrigo
authors.affiliation: Clinical Neurosciences Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto, ON, Canada.
authors.forename: Jaeger
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Lam
authors.affiliation: Clinical Neurosciences Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto, ON, Canada.
authors.forename: Stefano I
authors.initials: SI
authors.lastname: Di Domenico
authors.affiliation: Clinical Neurosciences Laboratory, Department of Psychology, University of Toronto Scarborough Toronto, ON, Canada.
authors.forename: Bryanna
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Graves
authors.affiliation: School of Biomedical Engineering, Science and Health Systems, Drexel University Philadelphia, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Hasan
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Ayaz
keywords: Tower of London; deliberation; dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; executive functioning; functional near-infrared spectroscopy (fNIRS); problem-solving; validation
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