title: The pathophysiology of hypertension in patients with obesity.
abstract: The combination of obesity and hypertension is associated with high morbidity and mortality because it leads to cardiovascular and kidney disease. Potential mechanisms linking obesity to hypertension include dietary factors, metabolic, endothelial and vascular dysfunction, neuroendocrine imbalances, sodium retention, glomerular hyperfiltration, proteinuria, and maladaptive immune and inflammatory responses. Visceral adipose tissue also becomes resistant to insulin and leptin and is the site of altered secretion of molecules and hormones such as adiponectin, leptin, resistin, TNF and IL-6, which exacerbate obesity-associated cardiovascular disease. Accumulating evidence also suggests that the gut microbiome is important for modulating these mechanisms. Uric acid and altered incretin or dipeptidyl peptidase 4 activity further contribute to the development of hypertension in obesity. The pathophysiology of obesity-related hypertension is especially relevant to premenopausal women with obesity and type 2 diabetes mellitus who are at high risk of developing arterial stiffness and endothelial dysfunction. In this Review we discuss the relationship between obesity and hypertension with special emphasis on potential mechanisms and therapeutic targeting that might be used in a clinical setting.
authors.affiliation: Internal Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia School of Medicine, One Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO 65212, USA.
authors.forename: Vincent G
authors.initials: VG
authors.lastname: DeMarco
authors.affiliation: Internal Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia School of Medicine, One Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO 65212, USA.
authors.forename: Annayya R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Aroor
authors.affiliation: Internal Medicine, University of Missouri, Columbia School of Medicine, One Hospital Drive, Columbia, MO 65212, USA.
authors.forename: James R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Sowers
mesh_terms: D002316:Cardiotonic Agents; D004032:Diet; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000150:complications* / Q000178:diet therapy / Q000503:physiopathology*; D008019:Life Style; D009765:Obesity / Q000150:complications* / Q000178:diet therapy / Q000503:physiopathology*
chemical_list: D002316:Cardiotonic Agents
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2010 Mar;34(3):454-61
references.pmid: 20029377
references.citation: Am J Physiol Cell Physiol. 2012 Aug 1;303(3):C348-54
references.pmid: 22673616
references.citation: J Hypertens. 2001 Dec;19(12):2157-64
references.pmid: 11725158
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2013 Nov 1;305(9):H1281-7
references.pmid: 23709594
references.citation: Hypertension. 2005 Oct;46(4):806-11
references.pmid: 16157789
references.citation: Hypertension. 2012 Feb;59(2):324-30
references.pmid: 22146512
references.citation: Diabetes. 2005 Dec;54(12):3427-34
references.pmid: 16306358
references.citation: Hypertension. 2013 Jul;62(1):147-53
references.pmid: 23670298
references.citation: Hypertension. 1999 Aug;34(2):201-6
references.pmid: 10454441
references.citation: Cell Metab. 2012 Jan 4;15(1):10-8
references.pmid: 22225872
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 1982 Feb;54(2):254-60
references.pmid: 7033275
references.citation: J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2013 Feb;15(2):118-23
references.pmid: 23339730
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 1956 Jan-Feb;4(1):20-34
references.pmid: 13282851
references.citation: Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 1999 Feb;26(2):122-6
references.pmid: 10065332
references.citation: Med Clin North Am. 2011 Sep;95(5):903-17
references.pmid: 21855699
references.citation: JAMA. 2010 Jan 20;303(3):235-41
references.pmid: 20071471
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 1991 Jun;87(6):2246-52
references.pmid: 2040704
references.citation: Diabetes Obes Metab. 2014 Mar;16(3):268-72
references.pmid: 24125483
references.citation: Prev Med. 1987 Mar;16(2):235-51
references.pmid: 3588564
references.citation: Hypertension. 2005 Aug;46(2):321-5
references.pmid: 15983234
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 1994 Jan;93(1):397-404
references.pmid: 8282810
references.citation: Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2013;9:105-16
references.pmid: 23576873
references.citation: J Am Geriatr Soc. 2004 Mar;52(3):368-73
references.pmid: 14962150
references.citation: Metabolism. 1982 Sep;31(9):896-9
references.pmid: 7121260
references.citation: Curr Opin Pharmacol. 2013 Aug;13(4):613-7
references.pmid: 23648270
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2012 Oct 1;96(1):140-9
references.pmid: 22843705
references.citation: Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2009 Nov;49(10):868-913
references.pmid: 19960394
references.citation: Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2013 Jan;9(1):13-27
references.pmid: 23165161
references.citation: Hypertension. 2000 Oct;36(4):538-42
references.pmid: 11040232
references.citation: Rev Endocr Metab Disord. 2013 Mar;14(1):5-12
references.pmid: 23306778
references.citation: Sleep. 2001 Sep 15;24(6):721-5
references.pmid: 11560187
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2005 Jun;29(6):650-5
references.pmid: 15809666
references.citation: Nature. 2006 Dec 21;444(7122):1027-31
references.pmid: 17183312
references.citation: J Endocrinol. 2009 Jan;200(1):75-84
references.pmid: 18931023
references.citation: Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2013 Mar 15;304(6):F727-36
references.pmid: 23303409
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Mar 30;101(13):4661-6
references.pmid: 15070774
references.citation: Gut. 2010 Dec;59(12):1635-42
references.pmid: 20926643
references.citation: Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2011 Nov;31(11):2534-42
references.pmid: 21817097
references.citation: Endocrinology. 2013 Jan;154(1):159-71
references.pmid: 23142808
references.citation: Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 2007 Mar-Apr;85(3-4):413-21
references.pmid: 17612650
references.citation: Hypertension. 2008 Mar;51(3):635-41
references.pmid: 18195166
references.citation: Diabetes. 2013 Feb;62(2):313-9
references.pmid: 23349535
references.citation: Hypertension. 2004 Jul;44(1):12-9
references.pmid: 15173127
references.citation: Hypertension. 2011 Oct;58(4):559-65
references.pmid: 21844482
references.citation: J Hum Hypertens. 2014 Jan;28(1):3-9
references.pmid: 23698003
references.citation: J Hypertens. 2001 Dec;19(12):2271-7
references.pmid: 11725173
references.citation: Exp Physiol. 2012 Nov;97(11):1143-5
references.pmid: 23114051
references.citation: Curr Hypertens Rep. 2011 Feb;13(1):29-35
references.pmid: 20957458
references.citation: Endocrinology. 2013 Oct;154(10):3632-42
references.pmid: 23885014
references.citation: Nat Rev Cardiol. 2011 Jul 05;8(8):456-65
references.pmid: 21727918
references.citation: Hypertension. 2013 Dec;62(6):1105-10
references.pmid: 24060894
references.citation: Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2011 Aug 09;7(11):639-46
references.pmid: 21826100
references.citation: Clin Lipidol. 2011 Feb;6(1):79-91
references.pmid: 21686058
references.citation: Am J Hypertens. 2000 Dec;13(12):1308-14
references.pmid: 11130776
references.citation: Open Cardiovasc Med J. 2010 Dec 23;4:302-12
references.pmid: 21339899
references.citation: Am J Hypertens. 2010 Nov;23(11):1170-8
references.pmid: 20706196
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2010 Jun 4;285(23):17271-6
references.pmid: 20348094
references.citation: Diabetes. 2011 Jul;60(7):1917-25
references.pmid: 21593202
references.citation: Diabetes. 2013 Oct;62(10):3307-15
references.pmid: 24065788
references.citation: Pharmacol Ther. 2013 Jun;138(3):428-40
references.pmid: 23458610
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2007 Jan;117(1):175-84
references.pmid: 17200717
references.citation: Ann Intern Med. 1998 Jan 15;128(2):81-8
references.pmid: 9441586
references.citation: J Am Soc Nephrol. 1999 Dec;10(12):2569-76
references.pmid: 10589696
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2009 Jul;90(1):1-10
references.pmid: 19439460
references.citation: Hypertension. 2012 Feb;59(2):493-9
references.pmid: 22184328
references.citation: Diabetes Care. 2010 Oct;33(10):2217-24
references.pmid: 20566676
references.citation: Hypertension. 2013 Oct;62(4):674-7
references.pmid: 23980069
references.citation: Cardiorenal Med. 2013 Apr;3(1):48-56
references.pmid: 23946724
references.citation: Kidney Int Suppl. 2007 Aug;(106):S27-35
references.pmid: 17653207
references.citation: Diabetes. 2011 Apr;60(4):1246-57
references.pmid: 21330637
references.citation: Endocrinology. 2012 Mar;153(3):1025-30
references.pmid: 22253427
references.citation: J Immunol. 2011 Dec 1;187(11):5842-50
references.pmid: 22058415
references.citation: Hypertension. 2006 Nov;48(5):787-96
references.pmid: 17000932
references.citation: Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1984 Nov 10;289(6454):1257-61
references.pmid: 6437507
references.citation: Nat Rev Nephrol. 2013 Aug;9(8):459-69
references.pmid: 23774812
references.citation: Circulation. 1998 Aug 25;98(8):772-6
references.pmid: 9727547
references.citation: Semin Nephrol. 2013 Jan;33(1):44-53
references.pmid: 23374893
references.citation: Endocrinology. 2013 Jul;154(7):2501-13
references.pmid: 23653460
references.citation: J Am Soc Nephrol. 1992 Oct;3(4 Suppl):S64-8
references.pmid: 1457762
references.citation: BMJ. 2006 Jan 14;332(7533):73-8
references.pmid: 16371403
references.citation: Hypertension. 2013 May;61(5):943-7
references.pmid: 23595139
references.citation: Curr Hypertens Rep. 2013 Aug;15(4):409-16
references.pmid: 23677623
references.citation: Circulation. 1998 Oct 6;98(14):1472-6
references.pmid: 9760304
references.citation: Hypertension. 2011 Oct;58(4):665-71
references.pmid: 21844484
references.citation: Hypertension. 2012 Apr;59(4):755-62
references.pmid: 22331383
references.citation: Mol Aspects Med. 2012 Feb;33(1):26-34
references.pmid: 22040698
references.citation: Nat Med. 2006 Jan;12(1):62-6
references.pmid: 16397571
references.citation: Vasc Health Risk Manag. 2009;5(1):73-8
references.pmid: 19436651
references.citation: Cardiorenal Med. 2011;1(4):243-254
references.pmid: 22096456
references.citation: Circulation. 2009 Oct 20;120(16):1640-5
references.pmid: 19805654
references.citation: Biomed Pharmacother. 2002 Oct;56(8):365-79
references.pmid: 12442909
references.citation: J Physiol. 2012 Apr 15;590(8):1787-801
references.pmid: 22351630
references.citation: Exp Diabetes Res. 2012;2012:484696
references.pmid: 22851965
references.citation: Clin Chim Acta. 2013 Apr 18;419:87-94
references.pmid: 23422739
references.citation: Gend Med. 2012 Aug;9(4):287-91
references.pmid: 22795464
references.citation: Hypertension. 2001 Nov;38(5):1101-6
references.pmid: 11711505
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2007 Nov;92(11):4472-5
references.pmid: 17726083
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2011 Oct;301(4):H1540-50
references.pmid: 21821781
references.citation: Cardiorenal Med. 2011;1(3):193-210
references.pmid: 22096455
references.citation: FASEB J. 1990 Jun;4(9):2652-60
references.pmid: 2189777
references.citation: Diabetes. 2014 Apr;63(4):1289-302
references.pmid: 24222350
references.citation: J Clin Hypertens (Greenwich). 2013 Jan;15(1):7-13
references.pmid: 23282120
references.citation: Arch Intern Med. 2012 May 14;172(9):694-6
references.pmid: 22493410
references.citation: Diabetes Care. 2011 Sep;34(9):2015-22
references.pmid: 21816980
references.citation: Hypertension. 1995 Apr;25(4 Pt 2):893-7
references.pmid: 7721450
references.citation: Atherosclerosis. 2012 Mar;221(1):189-97
references.pmid: 22222417
references.citation: JAMA. 2006 Apr 5;295(13):1549-55
references.pmid: 16595758
references.citation: Diabetologia. 2010 Apr;53(4):730-40
references.pmid: 20225396
references.citation: Atherosclerosis. 2013 Feb;226(2):305-14
references.pmid: 23083681
references.citation: Exp Diabetes Res. 2011;2011:592408
references.pmid: 21969822
references.citation: Mol Aspects Med. 2013 Feb;34(1):39-58
references.pmid: 23159341
references.citation: Curr Hypertens Rep. 2001 Jun;3(3):209-15
references.pmid: 11353571
references.citation: Hypertension. 2003 Nov;42(5):878-84
references.pmid: 12975389
references.citation: J Hypertens. 2002 Nov;20(11):2183-9
references.pmid: 12409956
references.citation: Hypertension. 2006 Feb;47(2):296-308
references.pmid: 16434724
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2012 Mar 19;13(4):333-42
references.pmid: 22430786
references.citation: Diabetes Res Clin Pract. 2009 Jan;83(1):e27-30
references.pmid: 19095325
references.citation: Heart Fail Clin. 2012 Oct;8(4):609-17
references.pmid: 22999243
references.citation: Nat Med. 2012 Sep;18(9):1429-33
references.pmid: 22922412
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2006 Nov;30(11):1585-94
references.pmid: 16801930
references.citation: Hypertension. 2013 Aug;62(2):226-30
references.pmid: 23734005
references.citation: Nutr J. 2012 Dec 11;11:106
references.pmid: 23231777
references.citation: Hypertension. 2000 Jun;35(6):1270-7
references.pmid: 10856276
references.citation: Gend Med. 2011 Dec;8(6):343-54
references.pmid: 22153880
references.citation: Curr Hypertens Rep. 2003 Oct;5(5):386-92
references.pmid: 12948431
references.citation: Ann Med. 2012 Jun;44 Suppl 1:S74-84
references.pmid: 22713152
references.citation: Clin Physiol Funct Imaging. 2011 Mar;31(2):108-13
references.pmid: 21087396
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1997 Apr 17;336(16):1117-24
references.pmid: 9099655
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Nov 25;100(24):14211-6
references.pmid: 14614137
references.citation: Proc Nutr Soc. 2009 Feb;68(1):43-54
references.pmid: 19079823
references.citation: FASEB J. 2008 May;22(5):1502-11
references.pmid: 18171693
references.citation: Hypertension. 2004 Mar;43(3):518-24
references.pmid: 14732721
references.citation: Pflugers Arch. 2013 Dec;465(12):1661-70
references.pmid: 23636772
references.citation: J Clin Endocrinol Metab. 2010 Apr;95(4):1986-90
references.pmid: 20130077
references.citation: Ann Epidemiol. 1990 Oct;1(1):33-48
references.pmid: 1669488
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Sep 27;108(39):16457-62
references.pmid: 21900603
references.citation: FASEB J. 2013 Sep;27(9):3652-9
references.pmid: 23729588
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005 Oct;289(4):H1683-91
references.pmid: 15908469
references.citation: Clin Sci (Lond). 2013 Dec;125(11):513-20
references.pmid: 23786536
references.citation: Ann Intern Med. 1987 Aug;107(2):158-61
references.pmid: 3605894
references.citation: Eur J Pharmacol. 2010 Feb 25;628(1-3):140-7
references.pmid: 19944677
references.citation: Lancet. 2010 Jun 26;375(9733):2223-33
references.pmid: 20609968
references.citation: Clin Sci (Lond). 2012 Sep;123(5):273-84
references.pmid: 22590974
references.citation: Obes Res. 2000 Dec;8(9):605-19
references.pmid: 11225709
references.citation: Curr Hypertens Rep. 2010 Apr;12(2):93-8
references.pmid: 20424939
references.citation: Nutr Metab (Lond). 2004 Oct 19;1(1):10
references.pmid: 15507132
references.citation: J Pediatr. 2009 Jun;154(6):807-13
references.pmid: 19375714
references.citation: Arch Intern Med. 1993 Jun 28;153(12):1429-38
references.pmid: 8141868
references.citation: Diabetes Care. 1998 Aug;21(8):1258-65
references.pmid: 9702430
references.citation: Ann Intern Med. 1967 Jul;67(1):48-59
references.pmid: 6028658
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2005 Oct 27;353(17):1848-50
references.pmid: 16251542
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2011 Jun;121(6):2126-32
references.pmid: 21633181
references.citation: Hypertension. 2011 Feb;57(2):132-40
references.pmid: 21149826
references.citation: Hypertension. 2008 Oct;52(4):687-95
references.pmid: 18695151
references.citation: Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2004 Jan;286(1):F127-33
references.pmid: 14506074
references.citation: Endocr Rev. 2012 Apr;33(2):187-215
references.pmid: 22323472
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Aug 2;102(31):11070-5
references.pmid: 16033867
references.citation: Circulation. 2012 Dec 18;126(25):2983-9
references.pmid: 23151344
references.citation: J Hypertens. 2011 Oct;29(10):2004-13
references.pmid: 21881528
references.citation: Hypertension. 2005 Mar;45(3):356-62
references.pmid: 15630041
references.citation: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2011 Apr 5;57(14):1511-22
references.pmid: 21453829
references.citation: BMJ. 1988 Jul 30;297(6644):319-28
references.pmid: 3416162
references.citation: Front Physiol. 2012 May 07;3:128
references.pmid: 22586409
references.citation: Obes Rev. 2012 Jan;13(1):17-26
references.pmid: 21831233
references.citation: Compr Physiol. 2012 Oct;2(4):2393-442
references.pmid: 23720252
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2004 Apr;79(4):537-43
references.pmid: 15051594
references.citation: Hypertension. 2005 Jul;46(1):107-12
references.pmid: 15956108
references.citation: Annu Rev Physiol. 2013;75:23-47
references.pmid: 23216413
references.citation: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1999 Jul;23(7):693-701
references.pmid: 10454102
references.citation: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2013 Jan;21(1):8-24
references.pmid: 23401272
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2007 Oct 1;204(10):2449-60
references.pmid: 17875676
references.citation: ILAR J. 2012;53(3-4):306-21
references.pmid: 23744969
references.citation: J Nephrol. 2011 Jan-Feb;24(1):23-34
references.pmid: 20437401
references.citation: Diabetes Obes Metab. 2012 Jan;14(1):5-14
references.pmid: 21955459
references.citation: J Hypertens. 1999 Aug;17(8):1125-33
references.pmid: 10466468
references.citation: J Hum Hypertens. 1999 Jul;13(7):425-30
references.pmid: 10449204
references.citation: Endocr Res. 2004 Nov;30(4):865-70
references.pmid: 15666838
references.citation: Pharmacol Rev. 1991 Jun;43(2):109-42
references.pmid: 1852778
references.citation: Clin Exp Pharmacol Physiol. 2012 Sep;39(9):799-806
references.pmid: 21801195
references.citation: Front Endocrinol (Lausanne). 2013 Oct 29;4:161
references.pmid: 24194732
references.citation: Cardiorenal Med. 2011;1(1):5-12
references.pmid: 22258461
references.citation: Pharmacol Ther. 2010 May;126(2):159-72
references.pmid: 20171982
references.citation: Am J Hypertens. 2004 Oct;17(10):904-10
references.pmid: 15485752
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 1983 Sep;72(3):1150-62
references.pmid: 6350364
references.citation: J Hypertens. 2012 May;30(5):1022-8
references.pmid: 22388234
references.citation: J Obes. 2012;2012:879151
references.pmid: 22315672
references.citation: Diabet Med. 1998 Jul;15(7):539-53
references.pmid: 9686693
references.citation: Kidney Blood Press Res. 2012;36(1):65-84
references.pmid: 22947920
references.citation: J Hypertens. 2013 Oct;31(10):1925-38
references.pmid: 24107724
references.citation: Diabetes Obes Metab. 2013 Aug;15(8):737-49
references.pmid: 23433305
references.citation: J Nutr. 2013 Jun;143(6):818-26
references.pmid: 23596162
references.citation: Circulation. 2011 Nov 22;124(21):2338-49
references.pmid: 22007077
references.citation: Clin Epigenetics. 2012 May 23;4(1):7
references.pmid: 22621747
references.citation: Br Med J (Clin Res Ed). 1984 May 12;288(6428):1401-4
references.pmid: 6426576
references.citation: Arch Intern Med. 2004 May 10;164(9):934-42
references.pmid: 15136300
references.citation: Am J Hypertens. 1989 Jun;2(6 Pt 1):428-34
references.pmid: 2547397
references.citation: Metabolism. 2013 Nov;62(11):1543-52
references.pmid: 23932846
references.citation: Mol Cell Biochem. 2009 Dec;332(1-2):145-59
references.pmid: 19536638
references.citation: Nat Rev Cardiol. 2010 Sep;7(9):510-9
references.pmid: 20603647
references.citation: J Nutr Metab. 2013;2013:682673
references.pmid: 23762544
references.citation: Eur Heart J. 2013 Dec;34(45):3515-24
references.pmid: 23594590
references.citation: Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2007 Oct;27(10):2244-9
references.pmid: 17656672
references.citation: Diabetes Obes Metab. 2012 Feb;14(2):112-20
references.pmid: 21812894
references.citation: J Hum Hypertens. 2002 Nov;16(11):761-70
references.pmid: 12444537
references.citation: Hypertension. 2012 Dec;60(6):1524-30
references.pmid: 23108647
references.citation: Arch Intern Med. 1981 Jan;141(1):81-5
references.pmid: 7004372
references.citation: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2004 Apr 21;43(8):1399-404
references.pmid: 15093874
references.citation: Obes Res. 2003 Oct;11(10):1246-62
references.pmid: 14569051
references.citation: Diabetes. 2011 Apr;60(4):1258-69
references.pmid: 21346177
references.citation: Circulation. 1993 Aug;88(2):523-33
references.pmid: 8339414
references.citation: Cardiorenal Med. 2013 Oct;3(3):208-220
references.pmid: 24454316
references.citation: Acta Physiol (Oxf). 2011 Sep;203(1):259-69
references.pmid: 21281456
references.citation: Am J Physiol Renal Physiol. 2013 Jan 15;304(2):F156-67
references.pmid: 23152292
references.citation: J Nucl Cardiol. 2011 May;18(3):421-9; quiz 432-3
references.pmid: 21516378
references.citation: Am J Hypertens. 2005 Mar;18(3):431-40
references.pmid: 15797666
references.citation: Nat Rev Endocrinol. 2010 Feb;6(2):83-93
references.pmid: 20027193
references.citation: Clin Sci (Lond). 2014 Feb;126(4):267-74
references.pmid: 24144355
references.citation: Trends Pharmacol Sci. 2009 Nov;30(11):600-7
references.pmid: 19837468
references.citation: FASEB J. 2013 Oct;27(10):4226-43
references.pmid: 23845863
references.citation: Mol Med Today. 1995 Dec;1(9):418-23
references.pmid: 9415190
references.citation: Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol. 2011 Oct;301(4):R885-95
references.pmid: 21813874
references.citation: Front Microbiol. 2011 Jul 13;2:149
references.pmid: 21808634
references.citation: Clin Chem. 2013 May;59(5):781-92
references.pmid: 23396142
references.citation: J Am Geriatr Soc. 2010 Jul;58(7):1327-32
references.pmid: 20533969
references.citation: J Hypertens. 2012 Jun;30(6):1047-55
references.pmid: 22573071
references.citation: Immunol Cell Biol. 2011 Jan;89(1):130-42
references.pmid: 20514074