title: Gills are an initial target of zinc oxide nanoparticles in oysters Crassostrea gigas, leading to mitochondrial disruption and oxidative stress.
abstract: The increasing industrial use of nanomaterials during the last decades poses a potential threat to the environment and in particular to organisms living in the aquatic environment. In the present study, the toxicity of zinc oxide nanoparticles (ZnONP) was investigated in Pacific oysters Crassostrea gigas. The nanoscale of ZnONP, in vehicle or ultrapure water, was confirmed, presenting an average size ranging from 28 to 88 nm. In seawater, aggregation was detected by TEM and DLS analysis, with an increased average size ranging from 1 to 2 μm. Soluble or nanoparticulated zinc presented similar toxicity, displaying a LC50 (96 h) around 30 mg/L. High zinc dissociation from ZnONP, releasing ionic zinc in seawater, is a potential route for zinc assimilation and ZnONP toxicity. To investigate mechanisms of toxicity, oysters were treated with 4 mg/L ZnONP for 6, 24 or 48 h. ZnONP accumulated in gills (24 and 48 h) and digestive glands (48 h). Ultrastructural analysis of gills revealed electron-dense vesicles near the cell membrane and loss of mitochondrial cristae (6 h). Swollen mitochondria and a more conspicuous loss of mitochondrial cristae were observed after 24 h. Mitochondria with disrupted membranes and an increased number of cytosolic vesicles displaying electron-dense material were observed 48 h post exposure. Digestive gland showed similar changes, but these were delayed relative to gills. ZnONP exposure did not greatly affect thiol homeostasis (reduced and oxidized glutathione) or immunological parameters (phagocytosis, hemocyte viability and activation and total hemocyte count). At 24 h post exposure, decreased (-29%) glutathione reductase (GR) activity was observed in gills, but other biochemical responses were observed only after 48 h of exposure: lower GR activity (-28%) and levels of protein thiols (-21%), increased index of lipid peroxidation (+49%) and GPx activity (+26%). In accordance with ultrastructural changes and zinc load, digestive gland showed delayed biochemical responses. Except for a decreased GR activity (-47%) at 48 h post exposure, the biochemical alterations seen in gills were not present in digestive gland. The results indicate that gills are able to incorporate zinc prior (24 h) to digestive gland (48 h), leading to earlier mitochondrial disruption and oxidative stress. Our data suggest that gills are the initial target of ZnONP and that mitochondria are organelles particularly susceptible to ZnONP in C. gigas.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
authors.forename: Rafael
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Trevisan
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
authors.forename: Gabriel
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Delapedra
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
authors.forename: Danielle F
authors.initials: DF
authors.lastname: Mello
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
authors.forename: Miriam
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Arl
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetic, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88049-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
authors.forename: Éder C
authors.initials: ÉC
authors.lastname: Schmidt
authors.affiliation: Centre for Bionano Interactions, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
authors.forename: Fabian
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Meder
authors.affiliation: Centre for Bionano Interactions, University College Dublin, Dublin, Ireland.
authors.forename: Marco
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Monopoli
authors.affiliation: Federal Institute of Santa Catarina, Campus Garopaba, Laboratory of Histological Markers, 88495-000 Garopaba, SC, Brazil.
authors.forename: Eduardo
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Cargnin-Ferreira
authors.affiliation: Department of Cell Biology, Embryology and Genetic, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88049-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil.
authors.forename: Zenilda L
authors.initials: ZL
authors.lastname: Bouzon
authors.affiliation: School of Geography, Earth and Environmental Sciences, University of Plymouth, PL4 8AA Plymouth, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Andrew S
authors.initials: AS
authors.lastname: Fisher
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Sheehan
authors.affiliation: Department of Biochemistry, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900 Florianópolis, SC, Brazil. Electronic address: alcir.dafre@ufsc.br.
authors.forename: Alcir L
authors.initials: AL
authors.lastname: Dafre
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D049896:Crassostrea / Q000187:drug effects*; D005880:Gills / Q000187:drug effects / Q000648:ultrastructure; D006434:Hemocytes / Q000187:drug effects; D007928:Lethal Dose 50; D015227:Lipid Peroxidation / Q000187:drug effects; D046529:Microscopy, Electron, Transmission; D008928:Mitochondria / Q000187:drug effects; D053758:Nanoparticles / Q000633:toxicity*; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects*; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*; D015034:Zinc Oxide / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; D015034:Zinc Oxide
keywords: Antioxidants; Bivalves; Glutathione reductase; Mitochondria; Nanomaterials