Haloactamides versus halomethanes formation and toxicity in chloraminated drinking water.
In this study we quantified the concentrations of nine haloacetamides (HAcAms) and nine halomethanes (HMs) in the final waters of five drinking water treatment plants (DWTPs) that use either chlorination or chloramination for disinfection and evaluated the toxicity of dichloroacetamide (DCAcAm) and dichloromethane (DCM) in normal rat kidney (NRK) cells using four in vitro toxicity assays. All the DWTPs final waters contained primarily di-HAcAms, followed by tri- and mono-HAcAms, and DCAcAm was the most abundant species of the 9 HAcAms, regardless of chlorination or chloramination being applied. In the final waters of DWTPs using chlorination, tri-HMs (trihalomethanes, THMs) accounted for the majority of HMs, whereas chloramination resulted in more di-HMs (especially DCM) than THMs. All four in vitro toxicity assays indicated that the NRK cell chronic cytotoxicity and acute genotoxicity of DCAcAm were substantially higher than that of DCM. In view of observed occurrence concentrations and quantified toxicity levels, the findings of this study suggest that DCAcAm represents a higher toxicity risk than DCM in chloraminated drinking waters.
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200092, China.
Fan
F
Yang
School of Life Science and Technology, Tongji University, Shanghai 200092, China.
Jing
J
Zhang
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200092, China. Electronic address: feedwater@126.com.
Wenhai
W
Chu
College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Tongji University, Key Laboratory of Yangtze River Water Environment, Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200092, China. Electronic address: yindq@tongji.edu.cn.
Daqiang
D
Yin
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, Imperial College London, London SW7 2AZ, UK.
Michael R
MR
Templeton
D000081:Acetamides / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D000818:Animals; D002453:Cell Cycle / Q000187:drug effects; D002460:Cell Line; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects; D002700:Chloramines / Q000737:chemistry*; D004249:DNA Damage; D004202:Disinfectants / Q000737:chemistry*; D004203:Disinfection / Q000379:methods; D060766:Drinking Water / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry; D006846:Hydrocarbons, Halogenated / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D007668:Kidney / Q000166:cytology; D051381:Rats; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D018508:Water Purification / Q000379:methods
D000081:Acetamides; D002700:Chloramines; D004202:Disinfectants; D060766:Drinking Water; D006846:Hydrocarbons, Halogenated; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
Chloramination; Chlorination; Drinking water treatment; Haloacetamides; Halomethanes; In vitro toxicity