Mechanisms of prenatal programing: identifying and distinguishing the impact of steroid hormones.
Developmental programing is gaining considerable leverage as a conceptual framework for understanding individual variability in human behavioral and somatic health. The current mini-review examines some of the key conceptual and methodological challenges for developmental programing research focused on fetal sex steroid exposure and physical, behavioral, physiological, and health outcomes. Specifically, we consider the bases for focusing on sex steroids, methods for assessing prenatal steroid hormone exposure, confounding factors, and the most relevant postnatal outcomes. We conclude with a brief consideration, based on current knowledge, of the applications of the existing findings for further research and practice.
Department of Psychiatry, University of Rochester Medical Center , Rochester, NY , USA.
Thomas G
TG
O'Connor
Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, University of Rochester Medical Center , Rochester, NY , USA.
Emily S
ES
Barrett
child developmental outcomes; developmental programing; methodology; prenatal maternal distress; sex steroids