title: The strengths and weaknesses in verbal short-term memory and visual working memory in children with hearing impairment and additional language learning difficulties.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To compare verbal short-term memory and visual working memory abilities of six children with congenital hearing-impairment identified as having significant language learning difficulties with normative data from typically hearing children using standardized memory assessments.
  
  
  METHODS
  Six children with hearing loss aged 8-15 years were assessed on measures of verbal short-term memory (Non-word and word recall) and visual working memory annually over a two year period. All children had cognitive abilities within normal limits and used spoken language as the primary mode of communication. The language assessment scores at the beginning of the study revealed that all six participants exhibited delays of two years or more on standardized assessments of receptive and expressive vocabulary and spoken language.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The children with hearing-impairment scores were significantly higher on the non-word recall task than the "real" word recall task. They also exhibited significantly higher scores on visual working memory than those of the age-matched sample from the standardized memory assessment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Each of the six participants in this study displayed the same pattern of strengths and weaknesses in verbal short-term memory and visual working memory despite their very different chronological ages. The children's poor ability to recall single syllable words in relation to non-words is a clinical indicator of their difficulties in verbal short-term memory. However, the children with hearing-impairment do not display generalized processing difficulties and indeed demonstrate strengths in visual working memory. The poor ability to recall words, in combination with difficulties with early word learning may be indicators of children with hearing-impairment who will struggle to develop spoken language equal to that of their normally hearing peers. This early identification has the potential to allow for target specific intervention that may remediate their difficulties.
authors.affiliation: Health Professions Department, Speech Pathology & Therapy, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK. Electronic address: s.willis@mmu.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Suzi
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Willis
authors.affiliation: Health Professions Department, Speech Pathology & Therapy, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.
authors.forename: Juliet
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Goldbart
authors.affiliation: Health Professions Department, Speech Pathology & Therapy, Manchester Metropolitan University, Manchester, UK.
authors.forename: Jois
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Stansfield
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D002648:Child; D003054:Cochlear Implants; D003638:Deafness / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000601:surgery; D005260:Female; D006310:Hearing Aids; D034381:Hearing Loss / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy; D006801:Humans; D007805:Language Development Disorders / Q000503:physiopathology*; D008297:Male; D008570:Memory, Short-Term / Q000502:physiology*; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D013060:Speech / Q000502:physiology; D014796:Visual Perception / Q000502:physiology
keywords: Children; Cochlear implants; Hearing-impaired; Language impairment; Short-term memory; Working memory