title: Diversity of limb-bone safety factors for locomotion in terrestrial vertebrates: evolution and mixed chains.
abstract: During locomotion over land, vertebrates' limb bones are exposed to loads. Like most biological structures, limb bones have a capacity to withstand greater loads than they usually experience, termed a safety factor (SF). How diverse are limb-bone SFs, and what factors correlate with such variation? We have examined these questions from two perspectives. First, we evaluated locomotor SF for the femur in diverse lineages, including salamanders, frogs, turtles, lizards, crocodilians, and marsupials (opossums). Comparisons with values for hind-limb elements in running birds and eutherian mammals indicate phylogenetic diversity in limb-bone SF. A high SF (∼7) is primitive for tetrapods, but low magnitudes of load and elevated strength of bones contribute to different degrees across lineages; moreover, birds and eutherians appear to have evolved lower SFs independently. Second, we tested the hypothesis that SFs would be similar across limb bones within a taxon by comparing data from the humerus and femur of alligators. Both in bending and in torsion, we found a higher SF for the humerus than for the femur. Such a "mixed chain" of different SFs across elements has been predicted if bones have differing variabilities in load, different costs to maintain, or high SF values in general. Although variability in load is similar for the humerus and femur, a high SF may be less costly for the humerus because it is smaller than the femur. The high SFs of alligators also might facilitate differences in SF among their limb bones. Beyond these specific findings, however, a more general implication of our results is that evaluations of the diversity of limb-bone SFs can provide important perspective to direct future research. In particular, more complete understanding of variation in SF could provide insight into factors that promoted the evolutionary radiation of terrestrial locomotor function in vertebrates.
authors.affiliation: *Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH, USA; Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Clemson Libraries, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA rblob@clemson.edu.
authors.forename: Richard W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Blob
authors.affiliation: *Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH, USA; Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Clemson Libraries, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
authors.forename: Nora R
authors.initials: NR
authors.lastname: Espinoza
authors.affiliation: *Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH, USA; Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Clemson Libraries, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
authors.forename: Michael T
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Butcher
authors.affiliation: *Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH, USA; Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Clemson Libraries, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
authors.forename: Andrew H
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: *Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH, USA; Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Clemson Libraries, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
authors.forename: Angela R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: D'Amico
authors.affiliation: *Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH, USA; Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Clemson Libraries, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
authors.forename: Faraz
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Baig
authors.affiliation: *Department of Biological Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Department of Biological Sciences, Youngstown State University, Youngstown, OH, USA; Department of Anatomy, Midwestern University, Glendale, AZ, USA; Department of Bioengineering, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA; Clemson Libraries, Clemson University, Clemson, SC, USA.
authors.forename: K Megan
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Sheffield
mesh_terms: D000489:Alligators and Crocodiles / Q000502:physiology; D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000502:physiology*; D005121:Extremities / Q000502:physiology*; D005269:Femur / Q000502:physiology; D006811:Humerus / Q000502:physiology; D008124:Locomotion / Q000502:physiology*; D008954:Models, Biological; D013045:Species Specificity; D014714:Vertebrates / Q000502:physiology*; D016474:Weight-Bearing / Q000502:physiology*