title: Activation and repression of Epstein-Barr Virus and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus lytic cycles by short- and medium-chain fatty acids.
abstract: The lytic cycles of Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and Kaposi's sarcoma-associated herpesvirus (KSHV) are induced in cell culture by sodium butyrate (NaB), a short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) histone deacetylase (HDAC) inhibitor. Valproic acid (VPA), another SCFA and an HDAC inhibitor, induces the lytic cycle of KSHV but blocks EBV lytic reactivation. To explore the hypothesis that structural differences between NaB and VPA account for their functional effects on the two related viruses, we investigated the capacity of 16 structurally related short- and medium-chain fatty acids to promote or prevent lytic cycle reactivation. SCFAs differentially affected EBV and KSHV reactivation. KSHV was reactivated by all SCFAs that are HDAC inhibitors, including phenylbutyrate. However, several fatty acid HDAC inhibitors, such as isobutyrate and phenylbutyrate, did not reactivate EBV. Reactivation of KSHV lytic transcripts could not be blocked completely by any fatty acid tested. In contrast, several medium-chain fatty acids inhibited lytic activation of EBV. Fatty acids that blocked EBV reactivation were more lipophilic than those that activated EBV. VPA blocked activation of the BZLF1 promoter by NaB but did not block the transcriptional function of ZEBRA. VPA also blocked activation of the DNA damage response that accompanies EBV lytic cycle activation. Properties of SCFAs in addition to their effects on chromatin are likely to explain activation or repression of EBV. We concluded that fatty acids stimulate the two related human gammaherpesviruses to enter the lytic cycle through different pathways. Importance: Lytic reactivation of EBV and KSHV is needed for persistence of these viruses and plays a role in carcinogenesis. Our direct comparison highlights the mechanistic differences in lytic reactivation between related human oncogenic gammaherpesviruses. Our findings have therapeutic implications, as fatty acids are found in the diet and produced by the human microbiota. Small-molecule inducers of the lytic cycle are desired for oncolytic therapy. Inhibition of viral reactivation, alternatively, may prove useful in cancer treatment. Overall, our findings contribute to the understanding of pathways that control the latent-to-lytic switch and identify naturally occurring molecules that may regulate this process.
authors.affiliation: Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
authors.forename: Kelly L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Gorres
authors.affiliation: Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
authors.forename: Derek
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Daigle
authors.affiliation: Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA.
authors.forename: Sudharshan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mohanram
authors.affiliation: Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA George.Miller@yale.edu.
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Miller
mesh_terms: D001402:B-Lymphocytes / Q000187:drug effects / Q000821:virology; D002460:Cell Line; D005227:Fatty Acids / Q000378:metabolism*; D004854:Herpesvirus 4, Human / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology*; D019288:Herpesvirus 8, Human / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology*; D056572:Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D014775:Virus Activation / Q000187:drug effects*; D014779:Virus Replication / Q000187:drug effects*
chemical_list: D005227:Fatty Acids; D056572:Histone Deacetylase Inhibitors