title: The familial risk of autism.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) aggregates in families, but the individual risk and to what extent this is caused by genetic factors or shared or nonshared environmental factors remains unresolved.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To provide estimates of familial aggregation and heritability of ASD.
  
  
  METHODS
  A population-based cohort including 2,049,973 Swedish children born 1982 through 2006. We identified 37,570 twin pairs, 2,642,064 full sibling pairs, 432,281 maternal and 445,531 paternal half sibling pairs, and 5,799,875 cousin pairs. Diagnoses of ASD to December 31, 2009 were ascertained.
  
  
  METHODS
  The relative recurrence risk (RRR) measures familial aggregation of disease. The RRR is the relative risk of autism in a participant with a sibling or cousin who has the diagnosis (exposed) compared with the risk in a participant with no diagnosed family member (unexposed). We calculated RRR for both ASD and autistic disorder adjusting for age, birth year, sex, parental psychiatric history, and parental age. We estimated how much of the probability of developing ASD can be related to genetic (additive and dominant) and environmental (shared and nonshared) factors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the sample, 14,516 children were diagnosed with ASD, of whom 5689 had autistic disorder. The RRR and rate per 100,000 person-years for ASD among monozygotic twins was estimated to be 153.0 (95% CI, 56.7-412.8; rate, 6274 for exposed vs 27 for unexposed ); for dizygotic twins, 8.2 (95% CI, 3.7-18.1; rate, 805 for exposed vs 55 for unexposed); for full siblings, 10.3 (95% CI, 9.4-11.3; rate, 829 for exposed vs 49 for unexposed); for maternal half siblings, 3.3 (95% CI, 2.6-4.2; rate, 492 for exposed vs 94 for unexposed); for paternal half siblings, 2.9 (95% CI, 2.2-3.7; rate, 371 for exposed vs 85 for unexposed); and for cousins, 2.0 (95% CI, 1.8-2.2; rate, 155 for exposed vs 49 for unexposed). The RRR pattern was similar for autistic disorder but of slightly higher magnitude.We found support for a disease etiology including only additive genetic and nonshared environmental effects. The ASD heritability was estimated to be 0.50 (95% CI, 0.45-0.56) and the autistic disorder heritability was estimated to 0.54 (95% CI, 0.44-0.64).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Among children born in Sweden, the individual risk of ASD and autistic disorder increased with increasing genetic relatedness. Heritability of ASD and autistic disorder were estimated to be approximately 50%. These findings may inform the counseling of families with affected children.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden2Department of Psychosis Studies, Institute of Psychiatry, King's College London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Sven
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sandin
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden.
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Lichtenstein
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden.
authors.forename: Ralf
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Kuja-Halkola
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden.
authors.forename: Henrik
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Larsson
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Karolinska Institutet, Sweden.
authors.forename: Christina M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Hultman
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Ichan School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York4Department of Preventive Medicine, Ichan School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, New York5Seaver Autism Center and Friedman Brain Institute, Ichan School of Medicin.
authors.forename: Abraham
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Reichenberg
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001321:Autistic Disorder / Q000235:genetics*; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005260:Female; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008423:Maternal Age; D010331:Paternal Age; D012042:Registries; D012306:Risk; D013548:Sweden; D014430:Twins, Monozygotic / Q000235:genetics; D055815:Young Adult