title: Modulation of smoking and decision-making behaviors with transcranial direct current stimulation in tobacco smokers: a preliminary study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Most tobacco smokers who wish to quit fail to reach their goal. One important, insufficiently emphasized aspect of addiction relates to the decision-making system, often characterized by dysfunctional cognitive control and a powerful drive for reward. Recent proof-of-principle studies indicate that transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) over the dorsolateral prefrontal cortex (DLPFC) can transiently modulate processes involved in decision-making, and reduce substance intake and craving for various addictions. We previously proposed that this beneficial effect of stimulation for reducing addictive behaviors is in part mediated by more reflective decision-making. The goal of this study was to test whether nicotine intake and decision-making behaviors are modulated by tDCS over the DLPFC in tobacco smokers who wished to quit smoking.
  
  
  METHODS
  Subjects received two five-day tDCS regimens (active or sham). Stimulation was delivered over the right DLPFC at a 2 mA during 30 min. Nicotine cravings, cigarette consumption and decision-making were assessed before and after each session.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Main findings include a significant decrease in the number of cigarettes smoked when participants received active as compared to sham stimulation. This effect lasted up to four days after the end of the stimulation regimen. In regards to decision-making, smokers rejected more often offers of cigarettes, but not offers of money, after they received active as compared to sham stimulation at the Ultimatum Game. No significant change was observed at the Risk Task with cigarettes or money as rewards.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Overall, these findings suggest that tDCS over the DLPFC may be beneficial for smoking reduction and induce reward sensitive effects.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Canada Research Chair in Cognitive Neuroscience, Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Réadaptation et Intégration Sociale, Centre de Recherche l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec, Medical School, Laval University, Québec, QC, Canada; Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA. Electronic address: Shirley.fecteau@fmed.ulaval.ca.
authors.forename: Shirley
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Fecteau
authors.affiliation: Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Center for Neuroscience and Cognitive Systems@UniTn, Italian Institute of Technology, Rovereto, Italy.
authors.forename: Sara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Agosta
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Canada Research Chair in Cognitive Neuroscience, Centre Interdisciplinaire de Recherche en Réadaptation et Intégration Sociale, Centre de Recherche l'Institut Universitaire en Santé Mentale de Québec, Medical School, Laval University, Québec, QC, Canada.
authors.forename: Antoine
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hone-Blanchet
authors.affiliation: Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Laboratory of Neuromodulation, Spaulding Rehabilitation Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, USA.
authors.forename: Felipe
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Fregni
authors.affiliation: Núcleo de Neurociências, Centro de Ciências Biológicas e da Saúde, Universidade Presbiteriana Mackenzie, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Paulo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Boggio
authors.affiliation: Boston University School of Medicine, Boston Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Domenic
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Ciraulo
authors.affiliation: Berenson-Allen Center for Noninvasive Brain Stimulation, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA, USA; Institut Guttmann de Neurorehabilitació, Universitat Autónoma, Barcelona, Spain.
authors.forename: Alvaro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pascual-Leone
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002248:Carbon Monoxide / Q000097:blood; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D003657:Decision Making; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D005260:Female; D005717:Games, Experimental; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D017397:Prefrontal Cortex / Q000502:physiology; D012201:Reward; D012309:Risk-Taking; D012907:Smoking / Q000523:psychology*; D065908:Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D002248:Carbon Monoxide
keywords: Addiction; Decision-making; Noninvasive brain stimulation; Tobacco