title: Review of Kerma-Area Product and total energy incident on patients in radiography, mammography and CT.
abstract: This study estimated the energy incident on patients in radiography, mammography and CT using data related to X-ray beam quantity and quality. The total X-ray beam quantity is the average Air Kerma multiplied by the X-ray beam area and expressed as the Kerma-Area Product (Gy cm(-2)). The X-ray beam quality primarily depends on the target material (and anode angle), X-ray voltage (and ripple) as well as X-ray beam filtration. For any X-ray spectra, dividing total energy (fluence × mean energy) by the X-ray beam Kerma-Area Product yields the energy per Kerma-Area Product value (ε/KAP). Published data on X-ray spectra characteristics and energy fluence per Air Kerma conversion factors were used to determine ε/KAP factors. In radiography, ε/KAP increased from 6 mJ Gy(-1) cm(-2) at the lowest X-ray tube voltage (50 kV) to 25 mJ Gy(-1) cm(-2) at the highest X-ray tube voltage (140 kV). ε/KAP values ranged between 1 and 5 mJ Gy(-1) cm(-2) in mammography and between 24 and 42 mJ Gy(-1) cm(-2) in CT. Changes in waveform ripple resulted in variations in ε/KAP of up to 15 %, similar to the effect of changes resulting in the choice of anode angle. For monoenergetic X-ray photons, there was a sigmoidal-type increase in ε/KAP from 2 mJ Gy(-1) cm(-2) at 20 keV to 42 mJ Gy(-1) cm(-2) at 80 keV. However, between 80 and 150 keV, the ε/KAP shows variations with changing photon energy of <10 %. Taking the average spectrum energy to consist of monoenergetic X rays generally overestimates the true value of ε/KAP. This study illustrated that the energy incident on a patient in any area of radiological imaging can be estimated from the total X-ray beam intensity (KAP) when X-ray beam quality is taken into account. Energy incident on the patient can be used to estimate the energy absorbed by the patient and the corresponding patient effective dose.
authors.affiliation: Department of Bioengineering, Clemson-MUSC Bioengineering Program, Clemson University, Charleston, SC 29425, USA haiyao@clemson.edu.
authors.forename: Hai
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Yao
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
authors.forename: Walter
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Huda
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology and Radiological Science, Medical University of South Carolina (MUSC), Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
authors.forename: Eugene
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Mah
authors.affiliation: Department of Bioengineering, Clemson-MUSC Bioengineering Program, Clemson University, Charleston, SC 29425, USA.
authors.forename: Wenjun
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: He
mesh_terms: D065638:Absorption, Radiation; D003198:Computer Simulation; D005471:Fluoroscopy; D006801:Humans; D008327:Mammography; D008954:Models, Biological; D015233:Models, Statistical; D010361:Patients; D011829:Radiation Dosage; D012542:Scattering, Radiation; D014057:Tomography, X-Ray Computed; D014915:Whole-Body Counting / Q000379:methods*; D014965:X-Rays