title: Multi-country willingness to pay study on road-traffic environmental health effects: are people willing and able to provide a number?
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The health impacts from traffic-related pollutants bring costs to society, which are often not reflected in market prices for transportation. We set out to simultaneously assess the willingness-to-pay (WTP) for traffic-related air pollution and noise effect on health, using a single measurement instrument and approach. We investigated the proportion and determinants of "protest vote/PV responses (people who were against valuing their health in terms of money)" and "don't know"/DK answers, and explored the effect of DK on the WTP distributions.
  
  
  METHODS
  Within the framework of the EU-funded project INTARESE, we asked over 5,200 respondents in five European countries to state their WTP to avoid health effects from road traffic-related air pollution and noise in an open-ended web-based questionnaire. Determinants of PV and DK were studied by logistic regression using variables concerning socio-demographics, income, health and environmental concern, and risk perception.
  
  
  RESULTS
  About 10% of the respondents indicated a PV response and between 47-56% of respondents gave DK responses. About one-third of PV respondents thought that costs should be included in transportation prices, i.e. the polluter should pay. Logistic regression analyses showed associations of PV and DK with several factors. In addition to social-demographic, economic and health factors known to affect WTP, environmental concern, awareness of health effects, respondent's ability to relax in polluted places, and their view on the government's role to reduce pollution and on policy to improve wellbeing, also affected the PV and DK response. An exploratory weighting and imputation exercise did not show substantial effects of DK on the WTP distribution.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  With a proportion of about 50%, DK answers may be a more relevant issue affecting WTP than PV's. The likelihood to give PV and DK response were influenced by socio-demographic, economic and health factors, as well as environmental concerns and appreciation of environmental conditions and policies. In contested policy issues where actual policy may be based on WTP studies, PV and DK answers may indeed affect the outcome of the WTP study. PV and DK answers and their determinants therefore deserve further study in CV studies on environmental health effects.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands. tifanny.istamto@rivm.nl.
authors.forename: Tifanny
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Istamto
authors.forename: Danny
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Houthuijs
authors.forename: Erik
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Lebret
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000397:Air Pollution / Q000191:economics* / Q000517:prevention & control; D001294:Attitude to Health; D004782:Environmental Health / Q000191:economics*; D005060:Europe; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D018986:Motor Vehicles; D009624:Noise, Transportation / Q000517:prevention & control; D011639:Public Opinion; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D001335:Vehicle Emissions; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D001335:Vehicle Emissions