title: A review of the medicinal uses, phytochemistry and pharmacology of the genus Sapium.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Several species from the genus Sapium possess a broad range of medicinal properties and they have been used as traditional medicines by indigenous groups in several regions such as Malaysia, Africa, Southern China and Bolivia. Most of the species reported to possess therapeutic effects which are used for the treatment of skin-related diseases such as eczema and dermatitis, but they may also be used for overstrain, lumbago, constipation and hernia. Species of this genus are also used to treat wounds and snake bites. In addition, the saps/latex of Sapium glandulosum, Sapium indicum and Sapium sebiferum have/has toxic effects and are used as bird and fish poisons. This review discusses the current knowledge of the medicinal uses, phytochemistry, biological activities and toxicities of species from the genus Sapium to reveal their therapeutic potentials and gaps offering opportunities for future research.
  
  
  METHODS
  This review is based on a literature study of scientific journals and books from libraries and electronic sources, such as ScienceDirect, PubMed and ACS.
  
  
  RESULTS
  As many as 65 compounds are included in this review. They belong to different classes of compounds including flavonoids, terpenoids and several other types of compounds, such as alkaloids, phenolic acids and amides. The pharmacological studies revealed that various types of preparations, extracts and single compounds of species from this genus exhibited a broad spectrum of biological activities including antioxidant, antimicrobial, anti-inflammatory and cytotoxic activities. However, Sapium glandulosum, Sapium indicum and Sapium sebiferum were reported to possess toxic effects and Sapium sebiferum was found to contain phorbol esters acting as a tumor-promoting agent.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The genus Sapium consists of 23 accepted (high confidence) species. However, only very few of species have been phytochemically and pharmacologically studied. There is great potential to discover new chemical constituents from this genus because only a few species have been phytochemically investigated thus far. Only 27 compounds of 65 identified compounds have been studied for their biological activities. Several extracts and single compounds from this genus were reported to exhibit interesting biological activities such as antimicrobial, antioxidant and cytotoxic effects. Furthermore, the toxicity studies of some phorbol esters suggested that the compounds acted as potential tumor-promoting agents by stimulating protein kinase C. This is an interesting fact in which a plant with medicinal properties also possesses toxic effects as well. Therefore, more clinical studies on the toxicity of the extracts of the plants and the compounds isolated from this genus are also crucial to ensure their safety and to assess their eligibility for use as sources for modern medicines.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: ramadhanola@yahoo.com.
authors.forename: L M R
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Al Muqarrabun
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: noriz118@salam.uitm.edu.my.
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Ahmat
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Applied Sciences, Universiti Teknologi MARA (UiTM), 40450 Shah Alam, Selangor, Malaysia. Electronic address: sruzaina@salam.uitm.edu.my.
authors.forename: S Ruzaina S
authors.initials: SR
authors.lastname: Aris
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D020834:Ethnopharmacology; D006801:Humans; D008519:Medicine, Traditional / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000379:methods; D008517:Phytotherapy / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000379:methods*; D010936:Plant Extracts / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology*; D031287:Sapium / Q000187:drug effects*
chemical_list: D010936:Plant Extracts
keywords: Antioxidant; Cytotoxicity; Digestive diseases; Phorbol ester; Sapium; Skin diseases