title: Accounting for individual differences and timing of events: estimating the effect of treatment on criminal convictions in heroin users.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The reduction of crime is an important outcome of opioid maintenance treatment (OMT). Criminal intensity and treatment regimes vary among OMT patients, but this is rarely adjusted for in statistical analyses, which tend to focus on cohort incidence rates and rate ratios. The purpose of this work was to estimate the relationship between treatment and criminal convictions among OMT patients, adjusting for individual covariate information and timing of events, fitting time-to-event regression models of increasing complexity.
  
  
  METHODS
  National criminal records were cross linked with treatment data on 3221 patients starting OMT in Norway 1997-2003. In addition to calculating cohort incidence rates, criminal convictions was modelled as a recurrent event dependent variable, and treatment a time-dependent covariate, in Cox proportional hazards, Aalen's additive hazards, and semi-parametric additive hazards regression models. Both fixed and dynamic covariates were included.
  
  
  RESULTS
  During OMT, the number of days with criminal convictions for the cohort as a whole was 61% lower than when not in treatment. OMT was associated with reduced number of days with criminal convictions in all time-to-event regression models, but the hazard ratio (95% CI) was strongly attenuated when adjusting for covariates; from 0.40 (0.35, 0.45) in a univariate model to 0.79 (0.72, 0.87) in a fully adjusted model. The hazard was lower for females and decreasing with older age, while increasing with high numbers of criminal convictions prior to application to OMT (all p < 0.001). The strongest predictors were level of criminal activity prior to entering into OMT, and having a recent criminal conviction (both p < 0.001). The effect of several predictors was significantly time-varying with their effects diminishing over time.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Analyzing complex observational data regarding to fixed factors only overlooks important temporal information, and naïve cohort level incidence rates might result in biased estimates of the effect of interventions. Applying time-to-event regression models, properly adjusting for individual covariate information and timing of various events, allows for more precise and reliable effect estimates, as well as painting a more nuanced picture that can aid health care professionals and policy makers.
authors.affiliation: SERAF, Norwegian Centre for Addiction Research, University of Oslo, Kirkeveien 166, 0407 Oslo, Norway. jo.roislien@medisin.uio.no.
authors.forename: Jo
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Røislien
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Clausen
authors.forename: Jon Michael
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Gran
authors.forename: Anne
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bukten
mesh_terms: D000375:Aging; D003415:Crime / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D057237:Criminals / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D061345:Early Medical Intervention / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D006556:Heroin Dependence / Q000628:therapy*; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D009664:Norway / Q000453:epidemiology; D016016:Proportional Hazards Models; D016320:Substance Abuse Treatment Centers; D016896:Treatment Outcome