title: Evidence for low high-density lipoprotein cholesterol levels in Australian indigenous peoples: a systematic review.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Low plasma high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL-C) levels are a strong, independent, but poorly understood risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD). Although this atherogenic lipid abnormality has been widely reported in Australia's Indigenous peoples, Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islanders, the evidence has not come under systematic review. This review therefore examines published data for Indigenous Australians reporting 1) mean HDL-C levels for both sexes and 2) factors associated with low HDL-C.
  
  
  METHODS
  PubMed, Medline and Informit ATSI Health databases were systematically searched between 1950 and 2012 for studies on Indigenous Australians reporting mean HDL-C levels in both sexes. Retrieved studies were evaluated by standard criteria. Low HDL-C was defined as: <1.0 mmol/L. Analyses of primary data associating measures of HDL-C with other CVD risk factors were also performed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Fifteen of 93 retrieved studies were identified for inclusion. These provided 58 mean HDL-C levels; 29 for each sex, most obtained in rural/regional (20%) or remote settings (60%) and including 51-1641 participants. For Australian Aborigines, mean HDL-C values ranged between 0.81-1.50 mmol/L in females and 0.76-1.60 mmol/L in males. Two of 15 studies reported HDL-C levels for Torres Strait Islander populations, mean HDL-C: 1.00 or 1.11 mmol/L for females and 1.01 or 1.13 mmol/L for males. Low HDL-C was observed only in rural/regional and remote settings--not in national or urban studies (n = 3) in either gender. Diabetes prevalence, mean/median waist-to-hip ratio and circulating C-reactive protein levels were negatively associated with HDL-C levels (all P < 0.05). Thirty-four per cent of studies reported lower mean HDL-C levels in females than in males.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Very low mean HDL-C levels are common in Australian Indigenous populations living in rural and remote communities. Inverse associations between HDL-C and central obesity, diabetes prevalence and inflammatory markers suggest a particularly adverse CVD risk factor profile. An absence of sex dichotomy in HDL-C levels warrants further investigation.
authors.affiliation: Baker IDI Heart and Diabetes Institute, 75 Commercial Road, Melbourne, Victoria 3004, Australia. jasmine.lyons@bakeridi.edu.au.
authors.forename: Jasmine G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Lyons
authors.forename: Kerin
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: O'Dea
authors.forename: Karen Z
authors.initials: KZ
authors.lastname: Walker
mesh_terms: D001315:Australia / Q000453:epidemiology; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood; D002097:C-Reactive Protein; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000209:etiology; D008076:Cholesterol, HDL / Q000097:blood*; D003920:Diabetes Mellitus / Q000097:blood / Q000453:epidemiology; D050171:Dyslipidemias / Q000097:blood* / Q000150:complications; D006801:Humans; D009765:Obesity / Q000097:blood / Q000453:epidemiology; D015995:Prevalence; D012307:Risk Factors; D012424:Rural Population; D000095283:Australian Aboriginal and Torres Strait Islander Peoples
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D008076:Cholesterol, HDL; D002097:C-Reactive Protein