title: Effect of living area and sports club participation on physical fitness in children: a 4 year longitudinal study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cross-sectional studies detected associations between physical fitness, living area, and sports participation in children. Yet, their scientific value is limited because the identification of cause-and-effect relationships is not possible. In a longitudinal approach, we examined the effects of living area and sports club participation on physical fitness development in primary school children from classes 3 to 6.
  
  
  METHODS
  One-hundred and seventy-two children (age: 9-12 years; sex: 69 girls, 103 boys) were tested for their physical fitness (i.e., endurance [9-min run], speed [50-m sprint], lower- [triple hop] and upper-extremity muscle strength [1-kg ball push], flexibility [stand-and-reach], and coordination [star coordination run]). Living area (i.e., urban or rural) and sports club participation were assessed using parent questionnaire.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Over the 4 year study period, urban compared to rural children showed significantly better performance development for upper- (p = 0.009, ES = 0.16) and lower-extremity strength (p < 0.001, ES = 0.22). Further, significantly better performance development were found for endurance (p = 0.08, ES = 0.19) and lower-extremity strength (p = 0.024, ES = 0.23) for children continuously participating in sports clubs compared to their non-participating peers.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings suggest that sport club programs with appealing arrangements appear to represent a good means to promote physical fitness in children living in rural areas.
authors.forename: Kathleen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Golle
authors.forename: Urs
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Granacher
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hoffmann
authors.forename: Ditmar
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Wick
authors.affiliation: Division of Training and Movement Sciences, University of Potsdam, Am Neuen Palais 10, House 12, D-14469, Potsdam, Germany. thomas.muehlbauer@uni-potsdam.de.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Muehlbauer
mesh_terms: D017677:Age Distribution; D002648:Child; D005260:Female; D005858:Germany; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D053580:Muscle Strength / Q000502:physiology; D010290:Parents; D010809:Physical Fitness / Q000502:physiology*; D012111:Residence Characteristics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D012424:Rural Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D058992:Social Participation; D013177:Sports / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014505:Urban Population / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*