title: α-Linolenic acid: nutraceutical, pharmacological and toxicological evaluation.
abstract: α-Linolenic acid (ALA), a carboxylic acid with 18 carbons and three cis double bonds, is an essential fatty acid needed for human health and can be acquired via regular dietary intake of foods that contain ALA or dietary supplementation of foods high in ALA, for example flaxseed. ALA has been reported to have cardiovascular-protective, anti-cancer, neuro-protective, anti-osteoporotic, anti-inflammatory, and antioxidative effects. ALA is the precursor of longer chain omega-3 fatty acids, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA), but its beneficial effects on risk factors for cardiovascular diseases are still inconclusive. The recommended intake of ALA for cardiovascular health is reported to be 1.1-2.2g/day. Although there are limited toxicological data for ALA, no serious adverse effects have been reported. The evidence on an increased prostate cancer risk in association with dietary ALA is not conclusive. Based on the limited data currently available, it may be concluded that ALA may be beneficial as a nutraceutical/pharmaceutical candidate and is safe for use as a food ingredient.
authors.affiliation: College of Pharmacy, Dankook University, 119 Dandae-ro, Cheonan, Chungnam 330-714, Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Kyu-Bong
authors.initials: KB
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.affiliation: Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746, Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Yoon A
authors.initials: YA
authors.lastname: Nam
authors.affiliation: Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746, Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Hyung Sik
authors.initials: HS
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.affiliation: Harvard School of Public Health, 665 Huntington Ave, Boston, MA 02115, USA.
authors.forename: A Wallace
authors.initials: AW
authors.lastname: Hayes
authors.affiliation: Division of Toxicology, College of Pharmacy, Sungkyunkwan University, Suwon, Gyeonggi-do 440-746, Republic of Korea. Electronic address: bmlee@skku.edu.
authors.forename: Byung-Mu
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Lee
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000008:administration & dosage; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000517:prevention & control; D002319:Cardiovascular System / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids / Q000378:metabolism; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid / Q000378:metabolism; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000209:etiology / Q000473:pathology; D012307:Risk Factors; D018675:Toxicity Tests / Q000379:methods*; D017962:alpha-Linolenic Acid / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry / Q000493:pharmacokinetics
chemical_list: D000893:Anti-Inflammatory Agents; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D000975:Antioxidants; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents; D017962:alpha-Linolenic Acid; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid
keywords: Nutraceutic; Safety; α-Linolenic acid