title: Exosomes as immunotheranostic nanoparticles.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Exosomes are small biological membrane vesicles that measure 30 to 100 nm in diameter. They are involved in a wide array of biological activities, such as cell-cell communication, signal transduction, transport of genetic materials, and modulation of immune response. Evidence indicates that they can be used as not only therapeutic agents targeted against disease but also diagnostic biomarkers for pathologic conditions.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this review, we endeavor to present exosomes as immunologic agents that can be used as pioneering cancer vaccines to prime the immune system and explicate their therapeutic and diagnostic capabilities.
  
  
  METHODS
  An extensive literature search for studies that involved the use of exosomes as immunotheranostic nanoparticles was conducted using PubMed, ISI Web of Knowledge, and Google Scholar. Clinical trials that involved exosomes were also compiled by searching the clinicaltrials.gov database.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In its therapeutic facet of application, exosomes can be used as vehicles for drug or gene delivery. These biological vesicles have been found to have excellent host biodistribution and biocompatibility, issues often presented with gene delivery vehicles. Diagnostically, exosomes may prove to be useful biomarkers that are able to surpass current setbacks of modern diagnostic testing, which include invasive methods. Finally, current evidence has implied that the use of exosomes could form the basis for the development of future cell-free cancer vaccines.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Exosomes have numerous functions, and their double-edged features make the scope of their clinical applications, as both a diagnostic and therapeutic tool, immense.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom; UCL Medical School, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.lastname: Natasha G
authors.affiliation: Centre for Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom; UCL Medical School, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Buket
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Gundogan
authors.affiliation: Centre for Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom; UCL Medical School, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Biomaterials & Advanced Drug Delivery Laboratory, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California.
authors.forename: Aaron
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tan
authors.affiliation: Centre for Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Yasmin
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Farhatnia
authors.affiliation: Woffles Wu Aesthetic Surgery and Laser Centre, Camden Medical Centre, Singapore.
authors.forename: Woffles
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.affiliation: Biomaterials & Advanced Drug Delivery Laboratory, Stanford School of Medicine, Stanford University, Stanford, California.
authors.forename: Jayakumar
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rajadas
authors.affiliation: Centre for Nanotechnology and Regenerative Medicine, Division of Surgery and Interventional Science, University College London, London, United Kingdom; Royal Free London National Health Service Foundation Trust Hospital, London, United Kingdom. Electronic address: a.seifalian@ucl.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Alexander M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Seifalian
mesh_terms: D015415:Biomarkers; D019496:Cancer Vaccines; D002450:Cell Communication; D055354:Exosomes / Q000276:immunology*; D006801:Humans; D053758:Nanoparticles; D015398:Signal Transduction; D000068936:Theranostic Nanomedicine; D014018:Tissue Distribution
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D019496:Cancer Vaccines
keywords: Exosomes; cancer vaccine; immunotherapy; nanomedicine; nanoparticles; theranostics