title: The link between cardiovascular risk, Alzheimer's disease, and mild cognitive impairment: support from recent functional neuroimaging studies.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review functional neuroimaging studies about the relationship between cardiovascular risk factors (CVRFs), Alzheimer's disease (AD), and mild cognitive impairment (MCI).
  
  
  METHODS
  We performed a comprehensive literature search to identify articles in the neuroimaging field addressing CVRF in AD and MCI. We included studies that used positron emission tomography (PET), single photon emission computerized tomography (SPECT), or functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
  
  
  RESULTS
  CVRFs have been considered risk factors for cognitive decline, MCI, and AD. Patterns of AD-like changes in brain function have been found in association with several CVRFs (both regarding individual risk factors and also composite CVRF measures). In vivo assessment of AD-related pathology with amyloid imaging techniques provided further evidence linking CVRFs and AD, but there is still limited information resulting from this new technology.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is a large body of evidence from functional neuroimaging studies supporting the hypothesis that CVRFs may play a causal role in the pathophysiology of AD. A major limitation of most studies is their cross-sectional design; future longitudinal studies using multiple imaging modalities are expected to better document changes in CVRF-related brain function patterns and provide a clearer picture of the complex relationship between aging, CVRFs, and AD.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM-21), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Luiz K
authors.initials: LK
authors.lastname: Ferreira
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM-21), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Jaqueline H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Tamashiro-Duran
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM-21), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Paula
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Squarzoni
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM-21), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Fabio L
authors.initials: FL
authors.lastname: Duran
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM-21), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Tania C
authors.initials: TC
authors.lastname: Alves
authors.affiliation: Center for Interdisciplinary Research on Applied Neurosciences (NAPNA), USP, São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Carlos A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Buchpiguel
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Psychiatric Neuroimaging (LIM-21), Department and Institute of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, Universidade de São Paulo (USP), São Paulo, SP, Brazil.
authors.forename: Geraldo F
authors.initials: GF
authors.lastname: Busatto
mesh_terms: D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology*; D002318:Cardiovascular Diseases / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology*; D060825:Cognitive Dysfunction / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology*; D059907:Functional Neuroimaging / Q000379:methods*; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Q000379:methods; D049268:Positron-Emission Tomography / Q000379:methods; D012307:Risk Factors; D015899:Tomography, Emission-Computed, Single-Photon / Q000379:methods