title: Personalized pharmacogenomics: predicting efficacy and adverse drug reactions.
abstract: Drug response varies between individuals owing to disease heterogeneity, environmental factors, and genetic factors. Genetic factors can affect both the pharmacokinetics and pharmacodynamics of a drug, leading to changes in local and systemic drug exposure and/or changes in the function of the drug target, altering drug response. Several pharmacogenetic biomarkers are already utilized in clinical practice and have been shown to improve clinical outcomes. However, a large number of other biomarkers have never made it beyond the discovery stage. Concerted effort is needed to improve the translation of pharmacogenetic biomarkers into clinical practice, and this will involve the use of standardized phenotyping and genotyping strategies, collaborative work, multidisciplinary approaches to identifying and replicating associations, and cooperation with industry to facilitate translation and commercialization. Acceptance of these approaches by clinicians, regulators, patients, and the public will be important in determining future success.
authors.affiliation: Wolfson Centre for Personalised Medicine, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 3GL, United Kingdom; email: munirp@liv.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Munir
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Pirmohamed
mesh_terms: D054316:Biomarkers, Pharmacological; D064420:Drug-Related Side Effects and Adverse Reactions / Q000235:genetics* / Q000473:pathology; D059647:Gene-Environment Interaction; D015894:Genome, Human; D006801:Humans; D010597:Pharmacogenetics; D057285:Precision Medicine; D011379:Prognosis
chemical_list: D054316:Biomarkers, Pharmacological
keywords: biomarkers; drug efficacy; drug safety; personalized medicine; pharmacogenomics