title: Independent and joint effects of prenatal maternal smoking and maternal exposure to second-hand smoke on the development of adolescent obesity: a longitudinal study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To examine associations of prenatal maternal smoking and second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure with the development of adolescent obesity.
  
  
  METHODS
  Longitudinal data (1991-2007) from National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development involving mothers that smoked and or exposed to SHS during the year before birth were analysed. Adolescent obesity in ages 12.0-15.9 years was defined as a BMI ≥ 95th percentile. Generalised estimating equations (GEE) were used for the analyses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Obesity was more prevalent among adolescents whose mothers smoked or had SHS exposure than those that did not smoke or exposed to SHS. After adjusting for maternal and child factors, GEE models showed that odds of adolescent obesity increased with prenatal maternal smoking (OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.03-2.39) and SHS exposure (OR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.04-2.27). The odds for obesity increased more than two times among adolescents exposed to both maternal smoking and SHS (OR = 2.10, 95% CI = 1.24, 3.56) compared with those without exposure. Additionally, not breastfeeding, maternal obesity, and longer screen viewing hours per day were associated with increased odds of obesity.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is possibly a long-term joint effect of prenatal maternal smoke (smoking and SHS) exposure on obesity among adolescent offspring, and the effect is independent of birthweight. These findings suggest that adolescent obesity could possibly be curtailed with the development and promotion of smoking cessation programmes for families during the year before birth.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biostatistics and Epidemiology, College of Public Health, East Tennessee State University, Johnson City, Tennessee, United States.
authors.forename: Liang
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.forename: Hadii M
authors.initials: HM
authors.lastname: Mamudu
authors.forename: Arsham
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Alamian
authors.forename: James L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Anderson
authors.forename: Billy
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Brooks
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D017677:Age Distribution; D001724:Birth Weight; D016009:Chi-Square Distribution; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005260:Female; D005865:Gestational Age; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D018811:Maternal Exposure / Q000009:adverse effects*; D015999:Multivariate Analysis; D009765:Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D063766:Pediatric Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology; D011247:Pregnancy; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D011379:Prognosis; D018570:Risk Assessment; D017678:Sex Distribution; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects*
keywords: adolescent obesity; longitudinal study; maternal smoking