title: The role of hermaphrodites in the experimental evolution of increased outcrossing rates in Caenorhabditis elegans.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Why most organisms reproduce via outcrossing rather than selfing is a central question in evolutionary biology. It has long ago been suggested that outcrossing is favoured when it facilitates adaptation to novel environments. We have previously shown that the experimental evolution of increased outcrossing rates in populations of the male-hermaphrodite nematode Caenorhabditis elegans were correlated with the experimental evolution of increased male fitness. However, it is unknown whether outcrossing led to adaptation, and if so, which fitness components can explain the observed increase in outcrossing rates.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Using experimental evolution in six populations with initially low standing levels of genetic diversity, we show with head-to-head competition assays that population-wide fitness improved during 100 generations. Since outcrossing rates increased during the same period, this result demonstrates that outcrossing is adaptive. We also show that there was little evolution of hermaphrodite fitness under conditions of selfing or under conditions of outcrossing with unrelated tester males. We nonetheless find a positive genetic correlation between hermaphrodite self-fitness and population-wide fitness, and a negative genetic correlation between hermaphrodite mating success and population-wide fitness. These results suggest that the several hermaphrodite traits measured are fitness components. Tradeoffs expressed in hermaphrodites, particularly noticed between self-fitness and mating success, may in turn explain their lack of change during experimental evolution.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings indicate that outcrossing facilitates adaptation to novel environments. They further indicate that the experimental evolution of increased outcrossing rates depended little on hermaphrodites because of fitness tradeoffs between selfing and outcrossing. Instead, the evolution of increased outcrossing rates appears to have resulted from unhindered selection on males.
authors.forename: Sara
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Carvalho
authors.forename: Ivo M
authors.initials: IM
authors.lastname: Chelo
authors.forename: Christine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Goy
authors.affiliation: Instituto Gulbenkian de Ciência, P-2781-901 Oeiras, Portugal. teotonio@biologie.ens.fr.
authors.forename: Henrique
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Teotónio
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D017173:Caenorhabditis elegans / Q000235:genetics / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology*; D056084:Genetic Fitness; D014644:Genetic Variation; D057850:Hermaphroditic Organisms / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology; D008297:Male; D012098:Reproduction; D012100:Reproduction, Asexual