title: The effects of visual and cognitive distractions on operational and tactical driving behaviors.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  This study tested the effects of two fundamental forms of distraction, including visual-manual and cognitive-audio distraction, with comparison under both operational and tactical driving. Strategic control remains for future study.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Driving is a complex control task involving operational, tactical, and strategic control. Although operational control, such as lead-car following, has been studied, the influence of in-vehicle distractions on higher levels of control, including tactical and strategic, remains unclear.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two secondary tasks were designed to independently represent visual-manual and cognitive-audio distractions, based on multiple resource theory. Drivers performed operational vehicle control maneuvers (lead-car following) or tactical control maneuvers (passing) along with the distraction tasks in a driving simulator. Response measures included driving performance and visual behavior.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results revealed drivers' ability to accommodate either visual or cognitive distractions in following tasks but not in passing. The simultaneous distraction condition led to the greatest decrement in performance.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Findings support the need to assess the impacts of in-vehicle distraction on different levels of driving control. Future study should investigate driver distraction under strategic control.
authors.forename: Yu
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.forename: David B
authors.initials: DB
authors.lastname: Kaber
authors.forename: Meghan
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Rogers
authors.forename: Yulan
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Liang
authors.forename: Shruti
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Gangakhedkar
mesh_terms: D000063:Accidents, Traffic / Q000517:prevention & control; D000293:Adolescent; D001288:Attention; D001334:Automobile Driving / Q000523:psychology*; D003071:Cognition; D003626:Data Display; D005133:Eye Movements; D005260:Female; D006309:Hearing; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D055815:Young Adult