title: The effect of learning on feedback-related potentials in adolescents with dyslexia: an EEG-ERP study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Individuals with dyslexia exhibit associated learning deficits and impaired executive functions. The Wisconsin Card Sorting Test (WCST) is a learning-based task that relies heavily on executive functioning, in particular, attention shift and working memory. Performance during early and late phases of a series within the task represents learning and implementation of a newly learned rule. Here, we aimed to examine two event-related potentials associated with learning, feedback-related negativity (FRN)-P300 complex, in individuals with dyslexia performing the WCST.
  
  
  METHODS
  Adolescents with dyslexia and age-matched typical readers performed the Madrid card sorting test (MCST), a computerized version of the WCST. Task performance, reading measures, and cognitive measures were collected. FRN and the P300 complex were acquired using the event-related potentials methodology and were compared in early vs late errors within a series.
  
  
  RESULTS
  While performing the MCST, both groups showed a significant reduction in average reaction times and a trend toward decreased error rates. Typical readers performed consistently better than individuals with dyslexia. FRN amplitudes in early phases were significantly smaller in dyslexic readers, but were essentially equivalent to typical readers in the late phase. P300 amplitudes were initially smaller among readers with dyslexia and tended to decrease further in late phases. Differences in FRN amplitudes for early vs late phases were positively correlated with those of P300 amplitudes in the entire sample.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Individuals with dyslexia demonstrate a behavioral and electrophysiological change within single series of the MCST. However, learning patterns seem to differ between individuals with dyslexia and typical readers. We attribute these differences to the lower baseline performance of individuals with dyslexia. We suggest that these changes represent a fast compensatory mechanism, demonstrating the importance of learning strategies on reading among individuals with dyslexia.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pediatric Neurology, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America.
authors.forename: Dror
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Kraus
authors.affiliation: Pediatric Neuroimaging Research Consortium, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, Ohio, United States of America; Edmond J. Safra Brain Research Center for the Study of Learning Disabilities, Faculty of Education, University of Haifa, Haifa, Israel.
authors.forename: Tzipi
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Horowitz-Kraus
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D004410:Dyslexia / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology; D004569:Electroencephalography; D018913:Event-Related Potentials, P300; D030141:Feedback, Psychological; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning / Q000502:physiology*; D008297:Male; D008570:Memory, Short-Term; D011930:Reaction Time