title: Negotiated control between the manual and visual systems for visually guided hand reaching movements.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Control of reaching movements for manual work, vehicle operation, or interactions with manual interfaces requires concurrent gaze control for visual guidance of the hand. We hypothesize that reaching movements are based on negotiated strategies to resolve possible conflicting demands placed on body segments shared by the visual (gaze) and manual (hand) control systems. Further, we hypothesize that a multiplicity of possible spatial configurations (redundancy) in a movement system enables a resolution of conflicting demands that does not require sacrificing the goals of the two systems.
  
  
  METHODS
  The simultaneous control of manual reach and gaze during seated reaching movements was simulated by solving an inverse kinematics model wherein joint trajectories were estimated from a set of recorded hand and head movements. A secondary objective function, termed negotiation function, was introduced to describe a means for the manual reach and gaze directing systems to balance independent goals against (possibly competing) demands for shared resources, namely the torso movement. For both systems, the trade-off may be resolved without sacrificing goal achievement by taking advantage of redundant degrees of freedom. Estimated joint trajectories were then compared to joint movement recordings from ten participants. Joint angles were predicted with and without the negotiation function in place, and model accuracy was determined using the root-mean-square errors (RMSEs) and differences between estimated and recorded joint angles.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The prediction accuracy was generally improved when negotiation was included: the negotiated control reduced RMSE by 16% and 30% on average when compared to the systems with only manual or visual control, respectively. Furthermore, the RMSE in the negotiated control system tended to improve with torso movement amplitude.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The proposed model describes how multiple systems cooperate to perform goal-directed human movements when those movements draw upon shared resources. Allocation of shared resources can be undertaken by a negotiation process that is aware of redundancies and the existence of multiple solutions within the individual systems.
authors.forename: K Han
authors.initials: KH
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.forename: R Brent
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Gillespie
authors.affiliation: Department of Industrial and Operations Engineering, The University of Michigan, Address: 1205 Beal Avenue, Ann Arbor, MI 48109-2117, USA. martinbj@umich.edu.
authors.forename: Bernard J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Martin
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D003198:Computer Simulation; D005260:Female; D005403:Fixation, Ocular / Q000502:physiology; D006225:Hand / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009048:Motor Skills / Q000502:physiology*; D055815:Young Adult