title: Astaxanthin offers neuroprotection and reduces neuroinflammation in experimental subarachnoid hemorrhage.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Neuroinflammation has been proven to play a crucial role in early brain injury pathogenesis and represents a target for treatment of subarachnoid hemorrhage (SAH). Astaxanthin (ATX), a dietary carotenoid, has been shown to have powerful anti-inflammation property in various models of tissue injury. However, the potential effects of ATX on neuroinflammation in SAH remain uninvestigated. The goal of this study was to investigate the protective effects of ATX on neuroinflammation in a rat prechiasmatic cistern SAH model.
  
  
  METHODS
  Rats were randomly distributed into multiple groups undergoing the sham surgery or SAH procedures, and ATX (25 mg/kg or 75 mg/kg) or equal volume of vehicle was given by oral gavage at 30 min after SAH. All rats were sacrificed at 24 h after SAH. Neurologic scores, brain water content, blood-brain barrier permeability, and neuronal cell death were examined. Brain inflammation was evaluated by means of expression changes in myeloperoxidase, cytokines (interleukin-1β, tumor necrosis factor-α), adhesion molecules (intercellular adhesion molecule-1), and nuclear factor kappa B DNA-binding activity.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Our data indicated that post-SAH treatment with high dose of ATX could significantly downregulate the increased nuclear factor kappa B activity and the expression of inflammatory cytokines and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 in both messenger RNA transcription and protein synthesis. Moreover, these beneficial effects lead to the amelioration of the secondary brain injury cascades including cerebral edema, blood-brain barrier disruption, neurological dysfunction, and neuronal degeneration.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results indicate that ATX treatment is neuroprotective against SAH, possibly through suppression of cerebral inflammation.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
authors.forename: Xiang-Sheng
authors.initials: XS
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. Electronic address: zhangxsp@163.com.
authors.forename: Xin
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
authors.forename: Qi
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
authors.forename: Wei
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
authors.forename: Chun-Xi
authors.initials: CX
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
authors.forename: Guang-Bin
authors.initials: GB
authors.lastname: Xie
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
authors.forename: Xiao-Ming
authors.initials: XM
authors.lastname: Zhou
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China.
authors.forename: Ji-Xin
authors.initials: JX
authors.lastname: Shi
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurosurgery, Jinling Hospital, School of Medicine, Nanjing University, Nanjing, Jiangsu Province, China. Electronic address: mlzhou1979@hotmail.com.
authors.forename: Meng-Liang
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Zhou
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001812:Blood-Brain Barrier / Q000187:drug effects; D001929:Brain Edema / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000276:immunology / Q000378:metabolism; D016923:Cell Death / Q000187:drug effects; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D053583:Interleukin-1beta / Q000378:metabolism; D008297:Male; D016328:NF-kappa B / Q000378:metabolism; D009443:Neuritis / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000276:immunology / Q000378:metabolism; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D009897:Optic Chiasm / Q000187:drug effects / Q000276:immunology / Q000378:metabolism; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D013345:Subarachnoid Hemorrhage / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000276:immunology / Q000378:metabolism; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha / Q000378:metabolism; D024341:Xanthophylls / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D053583:Interleukin-1beta; D016328:NF-kappa B; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha; D024341:Xanthophylls; C005948:astaxanthine
keywords: Astaxanthin; Early brain injury; Inflammation; Subarachnoid hemorrhage