title: Prevention of bile duct injury: the case for incorporating educational theories of expertise.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Over 700,000 laparoscopic cholecystectomies are performed yearly in the US. Despite multiple advantages of laparoscopic surgery, the increased rate of bile duct injury (BDI) compared to the traditional, open approach to cholecystectomy remains problematic. Due to the seriousness of bile duct injury, the time has come for an aggressive educational campaign to better train laparoscopic surgeons in order to reduce the incidence of this life-threatening and expensive complication.
  
  
  METHODS
  We performed a literature review of what is currently known about the causes of bile duct injury during laparoscopic cholecystectomy. Based on these reviews, we identified educational theories of expertise that may be relevant in understanding variable rates of BDI between surgeons. Finally, we applied educational theories of expertise to the problem of BDI in laparoscopic cholecystectomy to propose how to develop and design an effective educational approach for the prevention of BDI.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Multiple studies demonstrate that the primary causes of BDI during laparoscopic cholecystectomy are non-technical. Additionally, there exists a learning curve in which the rates of BDI are higher in a surgeon's earlier cases compared to later cases and that some surgeons perform laparoscopic cholecystectomy with significantly fewer injuries than others. Educational theories indicate that interventions that optimize novice to expert development require (1) revealing expert knowledge to novices and (2) scaffolding the mental habits of expert-like learners.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  BDI is an appropriate target for the application of educational theories of expertise. Designing better educational interventions for the prevention of BDI will require uncovering the hidden knowledge of expert surgeons and incorporating the processes of reinvestment and progressive problem solving that are inherent to expert performance.
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, 55 Fruit St., Boston, MA, 02114, USA, skmckinley@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Sophia K
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: McKinley
authors.forename: L Michael
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Brunt
authors.forename: Steven D
authors.initials: SD
authors.lastname: Schwaitzberg
mesh_terms: D001652:Bile Ducts / Q000293:injuries*; D017081:Cholecystectomy, Laparoscopic / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000193:education*; D002983:Clinical Competence; D006801:Humans; D007431:Intraoperative Complications / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D059032:Learning Curve; D017145:Models, Educational; D014481:United States