title: Smoking and increased Alzheimer's disease risk: a review of potential mechanisms.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cigarette smoking has been linked with both increased and decreased risk for Alzheimer's disease (AD). This is relevant for the US military because the prevalence of smoking in the military is approximately 11% higher than in civilians.
  
  
  METHODS
  A systematic review of published studies on the association between smoking and increased risk for AD and preclinical and human literature on the relationships between smoking, nicotine exposure, and AD-related neuropathology was conducted. Original data from comparisons of smoking and never-smoking cognitively normal elders on in vivo amyloid imaging are also presented.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Overall, literature indicates that former/active smoking is related to a significantly increased risk for AD. Cigarette smoke/smoking is associated with AD neuropathology in preclinical models and humans. Smoking-related cerebral oxidative stress is a potential mechanism promoting AD pathology and increased risk for AD.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A reduction in the incidence of smoking will likely reduce the future prevalence of AD.
authors.affiliation: Center for Imaging of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIND), San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA. Electronic address: timothy.durazzo@ucsf.edu.
authors.forename: Timothy C
authors.initials: TC
authors.lastname: Durazzo
authors.affiliation: Center for Imaging of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIND), San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, The Sahlgrenska Academy at the University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden.
authors.forename: Niklas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Mattsson
authors.affiliation: Center for Imaging of Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIND), San Francisco VA Medical Center, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Medicine, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA; Department of Neurology, University of California, San Francisco, San Francisco, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Michael W
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Weiner
mesh_terms: D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D000818:Animals; D001921:Brain / Q000187:drug effects / Q000503:physiopathology; D006801:Humans; D009538:Nicotine / Q000009:adverse effects; D018722:Nicotinic Agonists / Q000009:adverse effects; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology; D012307:Risk Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology
chemical_list: D018722:Nicotinic Agonists; D009538:Nicotine
keywords: Alzheimer's disease; Amyloid; Cigarette smoking; Military; Oxidative stress; Risk; Tau; Tobacco; U.S. Armed Services