title: Exercise mitigates the adverse effects of hyperhomocysteinemia on macrophages, MMP-9, skeletal muscle, and white adipocytes.
abstract: Regular exercise is a great medicine with its benefits encompassing everything from prevention of cardiovascular risk to alleviation of different muscular myopathies. Interestingly, elevated levels of homocysteine (Hcy), also known as hyperhomocysteinemia (HHcy), antagonizes beta-2 adrenergic receptors (β2AR), gamma amino butyric acid (GABA), and peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor-gamma (PPARγ) receptors. HHcy also stimulates an elevation of the M1/M2 macrophage ratio, resulting in a more inflammatory profile. In this review we discuss several potential targets altered by HHcy that result in myopathy and excessive fat accumulation. Several of these HHcy mediated changes can be countered by exercise and culminate into mitigation of HHcy induced myopathy and metabolic syndrome. We suggest that exercise directly impacts levels of Hcy, matrix metalloproteinase 9 (MMP-9), macrophages, and G-protein coupled receptors (GPCRs, especially Gs). While HHcy promotes the M1 macrophage phenotype, it appears that exercise may diminish the M1/M2 ratio, resulting in a less inflammatory phenotype. HHcy through its influence on GPCRs, specifically β₂AR, PPARγ and GABA receptors, promotes accumulation of white fat, whereas exercise enhances the browning of white fat and counters HHcy-mediated effects on GPCRs. Alleviation of HHcy-associated pathologies with exercise also includes reversal of excessive MMP-9 activation. Moreover, exercise, by reducing plasma Hcy levels, may prevent skeletal muscle myopathy, improve exercise capacity and rescue the obese phenotype. The purpose of this review is to summarize the pathological conditions surrounding HHcy and to clarify the importance of regular exercise as a method of disease prevention.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology & Biophysics, University of Louisville, Louisville, KY 40202, USA.
authors.forename: Lee
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Winchester
authors.forename: Sudhakar
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Veeranki
authors.forename: Srikanth
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Givvimani
authors.forename: Suresh C
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Tyagi
mesh_terms: D052438:Adipocytes, White / Q000378:metabolism*; D000818:Animals; D015444:Exercise; D006801:Humans; D020138:Hyperhomocysteinemia / Q000150:complications / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000473:pathology*; D007249:Inflammation / Q000378:metabolism; D008264:Macrophages / Q000378:metabolism*; D020780:Matrix Metalloproteinase 9 / Q000378:metabolism*; D024821:Metabolic Syndrome / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000378:metabolism*; D009135:Muscular Diseases / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D043562:Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D043562:Receptors, G-Protein-Coupled; D020780:Matrix Metalloproteinase 9
keywords: GPCR; MMP-9; PPAR; RCPG; cardiovasculaire; cardiovascular; exercice; exercise; homocysteine; homocystéine; macrophage; muscle squelettique; skeletal muscle