title: Black yeasts and their filamentous relatives: principles of pathogenesis and host defense.
abstract: Among the melanized fungi, the so-called "black yeasts" and their filamentous relatives are particularly significant as agents of severe phaeohyphomycosis, chromoblastomycosis, and mycetoma in humans and animals. The pathogenicity and virulence of these fungi may differ significantly between closely related species. The factors which probably are of significance for pathogenicity include the presence of melanin and carotene, formation of thick cell walls and meristematic growth, presence of yeast-like phases, thermo- and perhaps also osmotolerance, adhesion, hydrophobicity, assimilation of aromatic hydrocarbons, and production of siderophores. Host defense has been shown to rely mainly on the ingestion and elimination of fungal cells by cells of the innate immune system, especially neutrophils and macrophages. However, there is increasing evidence supporting a role of T-cell-mediated immune responses, with increased interleukin-10 (IL-10) and low levels of gamma interferon (IFN-γ) being deleterious during the infection. There are no standardized therapies for treatment. It is therefore important to obtain in vitro susceptibilities of individual patients' fungal isolates in order to provide useful information for selection of appropriate treatment protocols. This article discusses the pathogenesis and host defense factors for these fungi and their severity, chronicity, and subsequent impact on treatment and prevention of diseases in human or animal hosts.
authors: Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, Netherlands Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands Invasive Fungi Research Center, Mazandaran University of Medical Sciences, Sari, Iran S.Seyedmousavi@gmail.com.
authors: Seyedmojtaba
authors: S
authors: Seyedmousavi
authors: Department of Internal Medicine, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
authors: Mihai G
authors: MG
authors: Netea
authors: Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, Netherlands Department of Medical Microbiology and Infectious Diseases, Erasmus MC, Rotterdam, Netherlands.
authors: Johan W
authors: JW
authors: Mouton
authors: Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
authors: Willem J G
authors: WJ
authors: Melchers
authors: Department of Medical Microbiology, Radboudumc, Nijmegen, Netherlands.
authors: Paul E
authors: PE
authors: Verweij
authors: CBS-KNAW Fungal Biodiversity Centre, Utrecht, Netherlands, Institute for Biodiversity and Ecosystem Dynamics, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands, Peking University Health Science Center, Research Center for Medical Mycology, Beijing, China, Sun Yat-sen Memorial Hospital, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, China, and King Abdullaziz University, Jeddah, Saudi Arabia.
authors: G Sybren
authors: GS
authors: de Hoog
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005658:Fungi / Q000145:classification / Q000472:pathogenicity / Q000502:physiology*; D054884:Host-Pathogen Interactions / Q000276:immunology*; D006801:Humans; D009181:Mycoses / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000276:immunology* / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000628:therapy / Q000635:transmission; D014774:Virulence