title: Intranasal formulations: promising strategy to deliver vaccines.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The emergence of new diseases and the lack of efficient vaccines against numerous non-treatable pathogens require the development of novel vaccination strategies. To date, only a few mucosal vaccines have been approved for humans. This was in part due to i) the use of live attenuated vaccines, which are not suitable for certain groups of individuals, ii) safety concerns derived from implementation in humans of some mucosal vaccines, iii) the poor stability, absorption and immunogenicity of antigens delivered by the mucosal route and iv) the limited number of available technologies to overcome the bottlenecks associated with mucosal antigen delivery. Recent advances make feasible the development of efficacious mucosal vaccines with adequate safety profile. Thus, currently intranasal vaccines represent an attractive and valid alternative to conventional vaccines.
  
  
  METHODS
  The present review is focused on the potentials and limitations of market-approved intranasal vaccines and promising candidates undergoing clinical investigations. Furthermore, emerging strategies to overcome main bottlenecks including efficient breaching of the mucosal barrier and safety concerns by implementation of new adjuvants and delivery systems are discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The rational design of intranasal vaccines requires an in-depth understanding of the anatomic, physicochemical and barrier properties of the nasal mucosa, as well as the molecular mechanisms governing the activation of the local innate and adaptive immune system. This would provide the critical knowledge to establish effective approaches to deliver vaccine antigens across the mucosal barrier, supporting the stimulation of a long-lasting protective response at both mucosal and systemic levels. Current developments in the area of adjuvants, nanotechnologies and mucosal immunology, together with the identification of surface receptors that can be exploited for cell targeting and manipulating their physiological properties, will become instrumental for developing a new generation of more effective intranasal vaccines.
authors: Helmholtz Centre for Infection Research, Department of Vaccinology and Applied Microbiology , Inhoffenstrasse 7, 38124 Braunschweig , Germany.
authors: Peggy
authors: P
authors: Riese
authors: Priya
authors: P
authors: Sakthivel
authors: Stephanie
authors: S
authors: Trittel
authors: Carlos A
authors: CA
authors: Guzmán
mesh_terms: D000281:Administration, Intranasal; D000818:Animals; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems; D006801:Humans; D018928:Immunity, Mucosal / Q000276:immunology; D009297:Nasal Mucosa / Q000276:immunology*; D014611:Vaccination / Q000379:methods*; D014612:Vaccines / Q000008:administration & dosage*
chemical_list: D014612:Vaccines
keywords: adjuvants; antigen delivery systems; approved intranasal vaccines; microfold cell targeting; mucosal vaccines