title: Mapping the development of the basal ganglia in children with attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The basal ganglia are implicated in the pathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), but little is known of their development in the disorder. Here, we mapped basal ganglia development from childhood into late adolescence using methods that define surface morphology with an exquisite level of spatial resolution.
  
  
  METHODS
  Surface morphology of the basal ganglia was defined from neuroanatomic magnetic resonance images acquired in 270 youth with DSM-IV-defined ADHD and 270 age- and sex-matched typically developing controls; 220 individuals were scanned at least twice. Using linear mixed model regression, we mapped developmental trajectories from age 4 through 19 years at approximately 7,500 surface vertices in the striatum and globus pallidus.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the ventral striatal surfaces, there was a diagnostic difference in developmental trajectories (t = 5.6, p < .0001). Here, the typically developing group showed surface area expansion with age (estimated rate of increase of 0.54 mm(2) per year, standard error [SE] 0.29 mm(2) per year), whereas the ADHD group showed progressive contraction (decrease of 1.75 mm(2) per year, SE 0.28 mm(2) per year). The ADHD group also showed significant, fixed surface area reductions in dorsal striatal regions, which were detected in childhood at study entry and persisted into adolescence. There was no significant association between history of psychostimulant treatment and developmental trajectories.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Progressive, atypical contraction of the ventral striatal surfaces characterizes ADHD, localizing to regions pivotal in reward processing. This contrasts with fixed, nonprogressive contraction of dorsal striatal surfaces in regions that support executive function and motor planning.
authors: Behavioral Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), and with the Intramural Program of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH). Electronic address: shawp@mail.nih.gov.
authors: Philip
authors: P
authors: Shaw
authors: School of Medicine and Psychology, Sapienza University, Sant'Andrea Hospital, Rome, Italy.
authors: Pietro
authors: P
authors: De Rossi
authors: Behavioral Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), and with the Intramural Program of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH).
authors: Bethany
authors: B
authors: Watson
authors: Behavioral Research Branch, National Human Genome Research Institute (NHGRI), and with the Intramural Program of the National Institute of Mental Health (NIMH).
authors: Amy
authors: A
authors: Wharton
authors: Child Psychiatry Branch at NIMH.
authors: Deanna
authors: D
authors: Greenstein
authors: Child Psychiatry Branch at NIMH.
authors: Armin
authors: A
authors: Raznahan
authors: Behavioral Research Branch at NHGRI and the Intramural Program and Child Psychiatry Branch of NIMH.
authors: Wendy
authors: W
authors: Sharp
authors: Program in Neuroscience and Mental Health, The Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Canada.
authors: Jason P
authors: JP
authors: Lerch
authors: Research Imaging Centre, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada.
authors: M Mallar
authors: MM
authors: Chakravarty
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000473:pathology*; D001479:Basal Ganglia / Q000254:growth & development* / Q000473:pathology; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008297:Male; D066328:Ventral Striatum / Q000254:growth & development / Q000473:pathology; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder; basal ganglia; development; neuroimaging; ventral striatum