title: Histocompositional organization and toughening mechanisms in antler.
abstract: Mechanical testing studies by Krauss et al. (2009) and Gupta et al. (2013) suggest that the extraordinary toughness of antler bone is primarily achieved by intrinsic/nanostructural mechanisms instead of extrinsic/microstructural mechanisms. However, this conclusion is based on data from extremely small specimens from one antler loaded only in tension, which impedes discernment of the relative importance of intrinsic vs. extrinsic mechanisms. In the present study we conducted analyses into the microstructural features of antler for details of potential additional microscale toughening characteristics, as suggested by recent mechanical testing studies of bulk specimens. The data are also considered in view of the above-mentioned studies concluding that extrinsic/microstructural toughening mechanisms are less important than nanoscale/intrinsic toughening mechanisms in antler. Mule deer antlers were evaluated using: (1) backscattered electron imaging for micro-mineralization, (2) circularly polarized light for osteonal interfacial complexity and collagen fiber orientation (CFO) heterogeneity, and (3) X-ray 3D micro-computed tomography for osteon/vessel orientation, density, and size. Results showed: (1) hyper-mineralized seams of approximately 3-4 microns thickness within relatively hypermineralized "zones" that course circuitously along osteonal interfaces, (2) highly heterogeneous CFO, including increased oblique-to-transverse CFO near/adjacent to osteon peripheries, and (3) osteons are often highly elongated in 2D. 3D reconstructions show that a considerable percentage of the vascular canals course obliquely with respect to the antler long axis. While results show multiple possible extrinsic-level histological characteristics in antler bone, it remains to be determined if microstructural characteristics become subsidiary to nanostructural characteristics in enhancing toughness during the majority of post-yield behavior of antler bone when loaded in a biologically relevant fashion.
authors: Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, George E. Whalen Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA. Electronic address: jskedrosmd@uosmd.com.
authors: John G
authors: JG
authors: Skedros
authors: Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, George E. Whalen Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
authors: Kendra E
authors: KE
authors: Keenan
authors: Department of Anatomy and Cell Biology, University of Saskatchewan, Saskatoon, Saskatchewan, Canada.
authors: David M L
authors: DML
authors: Cooper
authors: Bone and Joint Research Laboratory, George E. Whalen Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Salt Lake City, UT, USA; Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT, USA.
authors: Roy D
authors: RD
authors: Bloebaum
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000999:Antlers / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D002113:Calcification, Physiologic; D003670:Deer; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D008297:Male; D055595:Mechanical Phenomena; D008854:Microscopy, Electron; D049329:Nanostructures / Q000648:ultrastructure*
keywords: Bone adaptation; Bone microstructure; Collagen fiber orientation; Deer antler; Osteons; Toughness