title: Toxicity of six plant extracts and two pyridone alkaloids from Ricinus communis against the malaria vector Anopheles gambiae.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The African malaria vector, Anopheles gambiae s.s., is known to feed selectively on certain plants for sugar sources. However, the adaptive significance of this behaviour especially on how the extracts of such plants impact on the fitness of this vector has not been explored. This study determined the toxicity and larvicidal activity on this vector of extracts from six selected plants found in Kenya and two compounds identified from Ricinus communis: 3-carbonitrile-4-methoxy-N-methyl-2-pyridone (ricinine), and its carboxylic acid derivative 3-carboxy-4-methoxy-N-methyl-2-pyridone, the latter compound being reported for the first time from this plant.
  
  
  METHODS
  Feeding assays tested for toxic effects of extracts from the plants Artemisia afra Jacq. ex Willd, Bidens pilosa L., Parthenium hysterophorus L., Ricinus coummunis L., Senna didymobotrya Fresen. and Tithonia diversifolia Hemsl. on adult females and larvicidal activity was tested against third-instar larvae of Anopheles gambiae s.s. Mortality of larvae and adult females was monitored for three and eight days, respectively; Probit analysis was used to calculate LC50. Survival was analysed with Kaplan-Meier Model. LC-MS was used to identify the pure compounds.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Of the six plants screened, extracts from T. diversifolia and R. communis were the most toxic against adult female mosquitoes after 7 days of feeding, with LC50 of 1.52 and 2.56 mg/mL respectively. Larvicidal activity of all the extracts increased with the exposure time with the highest mortality recorded for the extract from R. communis after 72 h of exposure (LC50 0.18 mg/mL). Mosquitoes fed on solutions of the pure compounds, 3-carboxy-4-methoxy-N-methyl-2-pyridone and ricinine survived almost as long as those fed on the R. communis extract with mean survival of 4.93 ± 0.07, 4.85 ± 0.07 and 4.50 ± 0.05 days respectively.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Overall, these findings demonstrate that extracts from the six plant species exhibit varying bioactivity against the larvae and adult females of An. gambiae s.s. T. diversifolia and R. communis showed highest bioactivity against adult females An. gambiae and larvae while longevity of female An. gambiae s.s. decreased with exposure time to the two pure compounds.
authors.affiliation: International Centre of Insect Physiology and Ecology, P,O, Box 30772-00100, Nairobi, Kenya. swachira2013@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Sabina Wangui
authors.initials: SW
authors.lastname: Wachira
authors.forename: Sabar
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Omar
authors.forename: Julia Wanjiru
authors.initials: JW
authors.lastname: Jacob
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wahome
authors.forename: Hans T
authors.initials: HT
authors.lastname: Alborn
authors.forename: David R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Spring
authors.forename: Daniel K
authors.initials: DK
authors.lastname: Masiga
authors.forename: Baldwyn
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Torto
mesh_terms: D000470:Alkaloids / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*; D000818:Animals; D000852:Anopheles / Q000187:drug effects*; D005260:Female; D007303:Insect Vectors / Q000187:drug effects*; D007306:Insecticides / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology; D008288:Malaria / Q000635:transmission; D010936:Plant Extracts / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011728:Pyridones / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*; D012278:Ricinus / Q000737:chemistry*
chemical_list: D000470:Alkaloids; D007306:Insecticides; D010936:Plant Extracts; D011728:Pyridones