title: Integrated phenotypes: understanding trait covariation in plants and animals.
abstract: Integration and modularity refer to the patterns and processes of trait interaction and independence. Both terms have complex histories with respect to both conceptualization and quantification, resulting in a plethora of integration indices in use. We review briefly the divergent definitions, uses and measures of integration and modularity and make conceptual links to allometry. We also discuss how integration and modularity might evolve. Although integration is generally thought to be generated and maintained by correlational selection, theoretical considerations suggest the relationship is not straightforward. We caution here against uncontrolled comparisons of indices across studies. In the absence of controls for trait number, dimensionality, homology, development and function, it is difficult, or even impossible, to compare integration indices across organisms or traits. We suggest that care be invested in relating measurement to underlying theory or hypotheses, and that summative, theory-free descriptors of integration generally be avoided. The papers that follow in this Theme Issue illustrate the diversity of approaches to studying integration and modularity, highlighting strengths and pitfalls that await researchers investigating integration in plants and animals.
authors.affiliation: School of Biological Sciences, University of Portsmouth, Portsmouth PO12DY, UK Institute of Arctic Biology, University of Alaska, Fairbanks, AK 99775, USA Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway scott.armbruster@port.ac.uk.
authors.forename: W Scott
authors.initials: WS
authors.lastname: Armbruster
authors.affiliation: Center for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
authors.forename: Christophe
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pélabon
authors.affiliation: Center for Biodiversity Dynamics, Department of Biology, Norwegian University of Science and Technology, 7491 Trondheim, Norway.
authors.forename: Geir H
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: Bolstad
authors.affiliation: Centre for Ecological and Evolutionary Synthesis, Department of Biology, University of Oslo, PO Box 1066, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Thomas F
authors.initials: TF
authors.lastname: Hansen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D035264:Flowers / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology*; D008954:Models, Biological; D010641:Phenotype; D018521:Plant Physiological Phenomena; D049490:Systems Biology / Q000379:methods*
keywords: integration; modularity; phenotype; variation