title: Modeling bi-modality improves characterization of cell cycle on gene expression in single cells.
abstract: Advances in high-throughput, single cell gene expression are allowing interrogation of cell heterogeneity. However, there is concern that the cell cycle phase of a cell might bias characterizations of gene expression at the single-cell level. We assess the effect of cell cycle phase on gene expression in single cells by measuring 333 genes in 930 cells across three phases and three cell lines. We determine each cell's phase non-invasively without chemical arrest and use it as a covariate in tests of differential expression. We observe bi-modal gene expression, a previously-described phenomenon, wherein the expression of otherwise abundant genes is either strongly positive, or undetectable within individual cells. This bi-modality is likely both biologically and technically driven. Irrespective of its source, we show that it should be modeled to draw accurate inferences from single cell expression experiments. To this end, we propose a semi-continuous modeling framework based on the generalized linear model, and use it to characterize genes with consistent cell cycle effects across three cell lines. Our new computational framework improves the detection of previously characterized cell-cycle genes compared to approaches that do not account for the bi-modality of single-cell data. We use our semi-continuous modelling framework to estimate single cell gene co-expression networks. These networks suggest that in addition to having phase-dependent shifts in expression (when averaged over many cells), some, but not all, canonical cell cycle genes tend to be co-expressed in groups in single cells. We estimate the amount of single cell expression variability attributable to the cell cycle. We find that the cell cycle explains only 5%-17% of expression variability, suggesting that the cell cycle will not tend to be a large nuisance factor in analysis of the single cell transcriptome.
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: McDavid
authors.affiliation: NanoString Technologies, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Lucas
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Dennis
authors.affiliation: NanoString Technologies, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Patrick
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Danaher
authors.affiliation: Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Greg
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Finak
authors.affiliation: NanoString Technologies, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Krouse
authors.affiliation: BD Biosciences, San Jose, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Alice
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: NanoString Technologies, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Philippa
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Webster
authors.affiliation: NanoString Technologies, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Beechem
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics, University of Washington, Seattle, Washington, United States of America; Vaccine and Infectious Disease Division, Fred Hutchinson Cancer Research Center, Seattle, Washington, United States of America.
authors.forename: Raphael
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Gottardo
mesh_terms: D002453:Cell Cycle / Q000235:genetics*; D002460:Cell Line; D019295:Computational Biology / Q000379:methods*; D015870:Gene Expression / Q000235:genetics*; D020869:Gene Expression Profiling; D053263:Gene Regulatory Networks; D018816:Genes, cdc; D006801:Humans; D008957:Models, Genetic