title: Comparing temporal aspects of visual, tactile, and microstimulation feedback for motor control.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Current brain-computer interfaces (BCIs) rely on visual feedback, requiring sustained visual attention to use the device. Improvements to BCIs may stem from the development of an effective way to provide quick feedback independent of vision. Tactile stimuli, either delivered on the skin surface, or directly to the brain via microstimulation in somatosensory cortex, could serve that purpose. We examined the effectiveness of vibrotactile stimuli and microstimulation as a means of non-visual feedback by using a fundamental element of feedback: the ability to react to a stimulus while already in motion.
  
  
  METHODS
  Human and monkey subjects performed a center-out reach task which was, on occasion, interrupted with a stimulus cue that instructed a change in reach target.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Subjects generally responded faster to tactile cues than to visual cues. However, when we delivered cues via microstimuation in a monkey, its response was slower on average than for both tactile and visual cues.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Tactile and microstimulation feedback can be used to rapidly adjust movements mid-flight. The relatively slow speed of microstimulation is surprising and warrants further investigation. Overall, these results highlight the importance of considering temporal aspects of feedback when designing alternative forms of feedback for BCIs.
authors.affiliation: Department of Bioengineering, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA. Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, Pittsburgh, PA, USA.
authors.forename: Jason M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Godlove
authors.forename: Erin O
authors.initials: EO
authors.lastname: Whaite
authors.forename: Aaron P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Batista
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000818:Animals; D004558:Electric Stimulation; D025461:Feedback, Physiological / Q000502:physiology*; D056228:Feedback, Sensory / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008253:Macaca mulatta; D008297:Male; D009068:Movement / Q000502:physiology*; D010812:Physical Stimulation; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D011930:Reaction Time / Q000502:physiology; D014110:Touch / Q000502:physiology*; D055815:Young Adult