title: Macular pigment, visual function, and macular disease among subjects with Alzheimer's disease: an exploratory study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The macula (central retina) contains a yellow pigment, comprising the dietary carotenoids lutein (L), zeaxanthin (Z), and meso-zeaxanthin, known as macular pigment (MP). The concentrations of MP's constituent carotenoids in retina and brain tissue correlate, and there is a biologically-plausible rationale, supported by emerging evidence, that MP's constituent carotenoids are also important for cognitive function.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To investigate if patients with Alzheimer's disease (AD) are comparable to controls in terms of MP and visual function.
  
  
  METHODS
  36 patients with moderate AD and 33 controls with the same age range participated. MP was measured using dual-wavelength autofluorescence (Heidelberg Spectralis®); cognitive function was assessed using a battery of cognition tests (including Cambridge Neuropsychological Test Automated Battery). Visual function was recorded by measuring best corrected visual acuity (BCVA) and contrast sensitivity (CS). Serum L and Z concentrations (by HPLC) and age-related macular degeneration (AMD, by retinal examination) status were also assessed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the AD group, central MP (i.e., at 0.23°) and MP volume were significantly lower than the control group (p < 0.001 for both), as were measures of BCVA, CS, and serum L and Z concentrations (p < 0.05, for all).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  AD patients were observed to exhibit significantly less MP, lower serum concentrations of L and Z, poorer vision, and a higher occurrence of AMD when compared to control subjects. A clinical trial in AD patients designed to investigate the impact of macular carotenoid supplementation with respect to MP, visual function, and cognitive function is merited.
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: John M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Nolan
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Ekaterina
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Loskutova
authors.affiliation: Howard Foundation, Cambridge, UK Downing College, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: Alan N
authors.initials: AN
authors.lastname: Howard
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Rachel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Moran
authors.affiliation: Waterford Regional Hospital, Age-Related Care Unit, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Riona
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mulcahy
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Jim
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Stack
authors.affiliation: Waterford Regional Hospital, Age-Related Care Unit, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Maggie
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bolger
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Jessica
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Dennison
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Kwadwo Owusu
authors.initials: KO
authors.lastname: Akuffo
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Niamh
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Owens
authors.affiliation: Northern Ireland, Centre for Food and Health (NICHE), University of Ulster, Coleraine, UK.
authors.forename: David I
authors.initials: DI
authors.lastname: Thurnham
authors.affiliation: Macular Pigment Research Group, Department of Chemical and Life Sciences, Waterford Institute of Technology, Waterford, Ireland.
authors.forename: Stephen
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Beatty
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000544:Alzheimer Disease / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology*; D004032:Diet; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D014975:Lutein / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000097:blood; D008268:Macular Degeneration / Q000473:pathology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D065348:Macular Pigment / Q000378:metabolism*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D012160:Retina / Q000473:pathology; D014792:Visual Acuity; D065146:Zeaxanthins / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D065348:Macular Pigment; D065146:Zeaxanthins; D014975:Lutein
keywords: Age-related macular degeneration; Alzheimer's disease; cognitive function; contrast sensitivity; lutein; meso-zeaxanthin; visual function; zeaxanthin