title: Additive benefits of autonomy support and enhanced expectancies for motor learning.
abstract: Two factors that have been shown to facilitate motor learning are autonomy support (AS) and enhanced expectancies (EE) for performance. We examined the individual and combined influences of these factors. In a 2 × 2 design, participants learning a novel motor skill (throwing with the non-dominant arm) were or were not provided a choice (AS) about the ball color on each of 6 10-trial blocks during practice, and were or were not given bogus positive social-comparative feedback (EE). This resulted in four groups: AS/EE, AS, EE, and C (control). One day after the practice phase, participants completed 10 retention and 10 transfer trials. The distance to the target--a bull's eye with a 1m radius and 10 concentric circles--was 7.5m during practice and retention, and 8.5m during transfer. Autonomy support and enhanced expectancies had additive advantages for learning, with both main effects being significant for retention and transfer. On both tests, the AS/EE group showed the greatest throwing accuracy. Also, the accuracy scores of the AS and EE groups were higher than those of the C group. Furthermore, self-efficacy measured after practice and before retention and transfer was increased by both AS and EE. Thus, supporting learners' need for autonomy by given them a small choice--even though it was not directly related to task performance--and enhancing their performance expectancies appeared to independently influence learning.
authors.affiliation: University of Nevada, Las Vegas, USA. Electronic address: gabriele.wulf@unlv.edu.
authors.forename: Gabriele
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Wulf
authors.affiliation: Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil.
authors.forename: Suzete
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Chiviacowsky
authors.affiliation: Federal University of Pelotas, Brazil.
authors.forename: Priscila Lopes
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Cardozo
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002755:Choice Behavior; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007858:Learning; D008297:Male; D009042:Motivation; D009048:Motor Skills / Q000502:physiology*; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology*; D012044:Regression Analysis; D015203:Reproducibility of Results
keywords: Fundamental psychological needs; Motivation; Self-controlled practice; Self-efficacy; Throwing