title: Exercise and associated dietary extremes impact on gut microbial diversity.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The commensal microbiota, host immunity and metabolism participate in a signalling network, with diet influencing each component of this triad. In addition to diet, many elements of a modern lifestyle influence the gut microbiota but the degree to which exercise affects this population is unclear. Therefore, we explored exercise and diet for their impact on the gut microbiota.
  
  
  METHODS
  Since extremes of exercise often accompany extremes of diet, we addressed the issue by studying professional athletes from an international rugby union squad. Two groups were included to control for physical size, age and gender. Compositional analysis of the microbiota was explored by 16S rRNA amplicon sequencing. Each participant completed a detailed food frequency questionnaire.
  
  
  RESULTS
  As expected, athletes and controls differed significantly with respect to plasma creatine kinase (a marker of extreme exercise), and inflammatory and metabolic markers. More importantly, athletes had a higher diversity of gut micro-organisms, representing 22 distinct phyla, which in turn positively correlated with protein consumption and creatine kinase.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The results provide evidence for a beneficial impact of exercise on gut microbiota diversity but also indicate that the relationship is complex and is related to accompanying dietary extremes.
authors.affiliation: Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Cork, Ireland Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Microbiology Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Siobhan F
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Clarke
authors.affiliation: Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Alimentary Health Ltd, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Eileen F
authors.initials: EF
authors.lastname: Murphy
authors.affiliation: Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Orla
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: O'Sullivan
authors.affiliation: Department of Food and Nutritional Sciences, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Alice J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Lucey
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition and Dietetics, Cork University Hospital, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Margaret
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Humphreys
authors.affiliation: Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Aileen
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hogan
authors.affiliation: Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Paula
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Hayes
authors.affiliation: Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Alimentary Health Ltd, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Maeve
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: O'Reilly
authors.affiliation: Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Microbiology Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Ian B
authors.initials: IB
authors.lastname: Jeffery
authors.affiliation: Irish Rugby Football Union, Dublin, Ireland.
authors.forename: Ruth
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Wood-Martin
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Mercy University Hospital, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: David M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Kerins
authors.affiliation: Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Eamonn
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Quigley
authors.affiliation: Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Cork, Ireland Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: R Paul
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Ross
authors.affiliation: Microbiology Department, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Paul W
authors.initials: PW
authors.lastname: O'Toole
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Michael G
authors.initials: MG
authors.lastname: Molloy
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Department of Sport Medicine, Sports Surgery Clinic, Dublin, Ireland.
authors.forename: Eanna
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Falvey
authors.affiliation: Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Department of Medicine, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland Atlantia Food Clinical Trials, University College Cork, Cork.
authors.forename: Fergus
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Shanahan
authors.affiliation: Teagasc Food Research Centre, Moorepark, Fermoy, Cork, Ireland Alimentary Pharmabiotic Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: Paul D
authors.initials: PD
authors.lastname: Cotter
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000378:metabolism; D015992:Body Mass Index; D003402:Creatine Kinase / Q000097:blood; D004032:Diet / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004044:Dietary Proteins / Q000378:metabolism*; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology*; D005504:Food Analysis; D041981:Gastrointestinal Tract / Q000382:microbiology*; D006801:Humans; D007109:Immunity / Q000502:physiology; D007249:Inflammation / Q000378:metabolism; D008297:Male; D064307:Microbiota / Q000502:physiology*; D013177:Sports / Q000502:physiology*; D064133:Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D004044:Dietary Proteins; D003402:Creatine Kinase