title: Enzyme inhibition, antioxidant and immunomodulatory activities, and brine shrimp toxicity of extracts from the root bark, stem bark and leaves of Terminalia macroptera.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The root bark, stem bark and leaves of Terminalia macroptera have been traditionally used against a variety of ailments such as wounds, hepatitis, malaria, fever, cough, and diarrhea as well as tuberculosis and skin diseases in African folk medicine. Boiling water extracts of Terminalia macroptera, administered orally, are the most common preparations of this plant used by the traditional healers in Mali. This study aimed to investigate the inhibition of the activities of α-glucosidase, 15-lipoxygenase and xanthine oxidase, DPPH scavenging activity, complement fixation activity and brine shrimp toxicity of different extracts obtained by boiling water extraction (BWE) and by ASE (accelerated solvent extraction) with ethanol, ethanol-water and water as extractants from different plant parts of Terminalia macroptera.
  
  
  METHODS
  27 different crude extracts were obtained by BWE and ASE from root bark, stem bark and leaves of Terminalia macroptera. The total phenolic and carbohydrate contents, enzyme inhibition activities (α-glucosidase, 15-lipoxygenase and xanthine oxidase), DPPH scavenging activity, complement fixation activity and brine shrimp toxicity of these extracts were evaluated. Principal component analysis (PCA) was applied for total biological activities evaluation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Several of the extracts from root bark, stem bark and leaves of Terminalia macroptera obtained by BWE and ASE showed potent enzyme inhibition activities, radical-scavenging properties and complement fixation activities. None of the extracts are toxic against brine shrimp larvae in the test concentration. Based on the results from PCA, the ASE ethanol extracts of root bark and stem bark and the low molecular weight fraction of the 50% ethanol-water extract of leaves showed the highest total biological activities. The boiling water extracts were less active, but the bark extracts showed activity as α-glucosidase inhibitors and radical scavengers, the leaf extract being less active.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The observed enzyme inhibition activities, radical scavenging properties and complement fixation activities may explain some of the traditional uses of this medicinal tree, such as in wound healing and against diabetes.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway. Electronic address: yuanfeng.zou@farmasi.uio.no.
authors.forename: Yuan-Feng
authors.initials: YF
authors.lastname: Zou
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Giang Thanh Thi
authors.initials: GT
authors.lastname: Ho
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Karl Egil
authors.initials: KE
authors.lastname: Malterud
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Nhat Hao Tran
authors.initials: NH
authors.lastname: Le
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Kari Tvete
authors.initials: KT
authors.lastname: Inngjerdingen
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Hilde
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Barsett
authors.affiliation: Department of Traditional Medicine, BP 1746, Bamako, Mali.
authors.forename: Drissa
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Diallo
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Terje Einar
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: Michaelsen
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, University of Oslo, P. O. Box 1068 Blindern, 0316 Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Berit Smestad
authors.initials: BS
authors.lastname: Paulsen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000737:chemistry / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000633:toxicity; D001156:Artemia / Q000187:drug effects*; D001713:Biphenyl Compounds / Q000737:chemistry; D003167:Complement Activation / Q000187:drug effects; D003168:Complement Fixation Tests; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000737:chemistry / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000633:toxicity; D065089:Glycoside Hydrolase Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology; D007155:Immunologic Factors / Q000737:chemistry / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000633:toxicity; D007928:Lethal Dose 50; D016859:Lipoxygenase Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology; D008517:Phytotherapy; D010851:Picrates / Q000737:chemistry; D024301:Plant Bark; D010936:Plant Extracts / Q000737:chemistry / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000633:toxicity; D018515:Plant Leaves; D018517:Plant Roots; D018547:Plant Stems; D010946:Plants, Medicinal; D025341:Principal Component Analysis; D012756:Sheep; D029766:Terminalia / Q000737:chemistry; D014969:Xanthine Oxidase / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D001713:Biphenyl Compounds; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors; D065089:Glycoside Hydrolase Inhibitors; D007155:Immunologic Factors; D016859:Lipoxygenase Inhibitors; D010851:Picrates; D010936:Plant Extracts; C004931:1,1-diphenyl-2-picrylhydrazyl; D014969:Xanthine Oxidase
keywords: 15-Lipoxygenase; DPPH; Immunomodulation; Terminalia macroptera; Xanthine oxidase; α-Glucosidase