title: Microarray analysis reveals global modulation of endogenous retroelement transcription by microbes.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A substantial proportion of both the mouse and human genomes comprise of endogenous retroelements (REs), which include endogenous retroviruses. Over evolutionary time, REs accumulate inactivating mutations or deletions and thus lose the ability to replicate. Additionally, REs can be transcriptionally repressed by dedicated mechanisms of the host. Nevertheless, many of them still possess and express intact open reading frames, and their transcriptional activity has been associated with many physiological and pathological processes of the host. However, this association remains tenuous due to incomplete understanding of the mechanism by which RE transcription is regulated. Here, we use a bioinformatics tool to examine RE transcriptional activity, measured by microarrays, in murine and human immune cells responding to microbial stimulation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Immune cell activation by microbial signals in vitro caused extensive changes in the transcription not only of the host genes involved in the immune response, but also of numerous REs. Modulated REs were frequently found near or embedded within similarly-modulated host genes. Focusing on probes reporting single-integration, intergenic REs, revealed extensive transcriptional responsiveness of these elements to microbial signals. Microbial stimulation modulated RE expression in a cell-intrinsic manner. In line with these results, the transcriptional activity of numerous REs followed characteristics in different tissues according to exposure to environmental microbes and was further heavily altered during viral infection or imbalances with intestinal microbiota, both in mice and humans.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Together, these results highlight the utility of improved methodologies in assessing RE transcription profiles in both archived and new microarray data sets. More importantly, application of this methodology suggests that immune activation, as a result of infection with pathogens or dysbiosis with commensal microbes, causes global modulation of RE transcription. RE responsiveness to external stimuli should, therefore, be considered in any association between RE transcription and disease.
authors: George R
authors: GR
authors: Young
authors: Bettina
authors: B
authors: Mavrommatis
authors: Division of Immunoregulation, MRC National Institute for Medical Research, The Ridgeway, London NW7 1AA, UK. gkassio@nimr.mrc.ac.uk.
authors: George
authors: G
authors: Kassiotis
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D020077:Endogenous Retroviruses / Q000235:genetics*; D005838:Genotype; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D064307:Microbiota; D053594:Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88 / Q000502:physiology; D020411:Oligonucleotide Array Sequence Analysis; D018626:Retroelements; D020079:Terminal Repeat Sequences; D051193:Toll-Like Receptors / Q000502:physiology
chemical_list: C507780:Myd88 protein, mouse; D053594:Myeloid Differentiation Factor 88; D018626:Retroelements; D051193:Toll-Like Receptors