title: Fruit softening and pectin disassembly: an overview of nanostructural pectin modifications assessed by atomic force microscopy.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  One of the main factors that reduce fruit quality and lead to economically important losses is oversoftening. Textural changes during fruit ripening are mainly due to the dissolution of the middle lamella, the reduction of cell-to-cell adhesion and the weakening of parenchyma cell walls as a result of the action of cell wall modifying enzymes. Pectins, major components of fruit cell walls, are extensively modified during ripening. These changes include solubilization, depolymerization and the loss of neutral side chains. Recent evidence in strawberry and apple, fruits with a soft or crisp texture at ripening, suggests that pectin disassembly is a key factor in textural changes. In both these fruits, softening was reduced as result of antisense downregulation of polygalacturonase genes. Changes in pectic polymer size, composition and structure have traditionally been studied by conventional techniques, most of them relying on bulk analysis of a population of polysaccharides, and studies focusing on modifications at the nanostructural level are scarce. Atomic force microscopy (AFM) allows the study of individual polymers at high magnification and with minimal sample preparation; however, AFM has rarely been employed to analyse pectin disassembly during fruit ripening.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this review, the main features of the pectin disassembly process during fruit ripening are first discussed, and then the nanostructural characterization of fruit pectins by AFM and its relationship with texture and postharvest fruit shelf life is reviewed. In general, fruit pectins are visualized under AFM as linear chains, a few of which show long branches, and aggregates. Number- and weight-average values obtained from these images are in good agreement with chromatographic analyses. Most AFM studies indicate reductions in the length of individual pectin chains and the frequency of aggregates as the fruits ripen. Pectins extracted with sodium carbonate, supposedly located within the primary cell wall, are the most affected.
authors: Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea 'La Mayora' (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, 29071, Málaga, Spain.
authors: Candelas
authors: C
authors: Paniagua
authors: Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea 'La Mayora' (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, 29071, Málaga, Spain.
authors: Sara
authors: S
authors: Posé
authors: Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UA, UK.
authors: Victor J
authors: VJ
authors: Morris
authors: Institute of Food Research, Norwich Research Park, Colney, Norwich NR4 7UA, UK.
authors: Andrew R
authors: AR
authors: Kirby
authors: Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, 29071, Málaga, Spain.
authors: Miguel A
authors: MA
authors: Quesada
authors: Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea 'La Mayora' (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Departamento de Biología Vegetal, Universidad de Málaga, 29071, Málaga, Spain mercado@uma.es.
authors: José A
authors: JA
authors: Mercado
mesh_terms: D002473:Cell Wall / Q000378:metabolism / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D015536:Down-Regulation; D005638:Fruit / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D015971:Gene Expression Regulation, Enzymologic; D018506:Gene Expression Regulation, Plant; D018625:Microscopy, Atomic Force / Q000379:methods*; D049329:Nanostructures; D010368:Pectins / Q000378:metabolism / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D010940:Plant Proteins / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D010944:Plants / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D030821:Plants, Genetically Modified; D011096:Polygalacturonase / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D011134:Polysaccharides / Q000378:metabolism / Q000648:ultrastructure
chemical_list: D010940:Plant Proteins; D011134:Polysaccharides; D010368:Pectins; D011096:Polygalacturonase; C003181:polygalacturonic acid
keywords: AFM; Atomic force microscopy; fruit ripening; fruit softening; homogalacturonan; nanostructure; pectins; plant cell wall; postharvest physiology; rhamnogalacturonan