title: Variation in nicotine intake among U.S. cigarette smokers during the past 25 years: evidence from NHANES surveys.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To estimate changes in nicotine intakes among U.S. cigarette smokers from 1988 to 2012 with the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (NHANES).
  
  
  METHODS
  NHANES provides data on nationally representative samples of cigarette smokers from the civilian noninstitutionalized U.S. population. A total of 4,304 smokers aged 20 years and older were studied in NHANES III 1988-1994 and 7,095 were studied in the continuous NHANES 1999-2012. We examined serum cotinine concentrations, daily cigarette consumption, and estimated nicotine intake per cigarette, with adjustment for sex, age, racial/ethnic background, level of education, and body mass index.
  
  
  RESULTS
  There was little overall change in nicotine intake from smoking cigarettes either in the U.S. population as a whole or in major racial/ethnic subgroups during the 25-year period from 1988. Serum cotinine averaged 223.7ng/mL (95% confidence interval [CI] = 216.1-231.3) in 1988-1994, which was not significantly different from the adjusted mean of 219.2ng/mL (95% CI = 214.1-224.4) in 1999-2012. During the same period, average daily cigarette consumption declined substantially, from 17.3 (95% CI = 16.5-18.0) in 1988-1994 to 12.3 (95% CI = 11.0-13.6) by 2012. Cotinine per cigarette smoked increased by some 42% between 1988-1994 and 2011-2012, from a geometric mean of 12.4 (95% CI = 11.7-13.1) to 17.6 (95% CI = 16.1-19.2).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Reductions in cigarette smoking prevalence since the late 1980s, changes in cigarette product design, and the widespread introduction of smoke-free policies have not had a significant impact on nicotine intakes among U.S. smokers. Reductions in cigarette consumption have been offset by increased nicotine intake per cigarette smoked.
authors: Department of Epidemiology and Public Health, University College London, London, UK; martin.jarvis@ucl.ac.uk.
authors: Martin J
authors: MJ
authors: Jarvis
authors: Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, New York, NY;
authors: Gary A
authors: GA
authors: Giovino
authors: Department of Health Behavior, Roswell Park Cancer Institute, Buffalo, NY;
authors: Richard J
authors: RJ
authors: O'Connor
authors: Department of Community Health and Health Behavior, School of Public Health and Health Professions, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, New York, NY;
authors: Lynn T
authors: LT
authors: Kozlowski
authors: Division of Laboratory Sciences, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, GA.
authors: John T
authors: JT
authors: Bernert
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003367:Cotinine / Q000097:blood; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009538:Nicotine / Q000097:blood; D009749:Nutrition Surveys / Q000639:trends*; D061845:Smoke-Free Policy / Q000639:trends; D012907:Smoking / Q000097:blood / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000639:trends*; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D009538:Nicotine; D003367:Cotinine