title: Female athletes: a population at risk of vitamin and mineral deficiencies affecting health and performance.
abstract: Adequate vitamin and mineral status is essential for optimal human health and performance. Female athletes could be at risk for vitamin and mineral insufficiency due to inadequate dietary intake, menstruation, and inflammatory responses to heavy physical activity. Recent studies have documented poor iron status and associated declines in both cognitive and physical performance in female athletes. Similarly, insufficient vitamin D and calcium status have been observed in female athletes, and may be associated with injuries, such as stress fracture, which may limit a female athlete's ability to participate in regular physical activity. This review will focus on recent studies detailing the prevalence of poor vitamin and mineral status in female athletes, using iron, vitamin D, and calcium as examples. Factors affecting the dietary requirement for these vitamins and minerals during physical training will be reviewed. Lastly, countermeasures for the prevention of inadequate vitamin and mineral status will be described.
authors: Military Nutrition Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM), Natick, MA 01760, United States. Electronic address: James.McClung3@us.army.mil.
authors: James P
authors: JP
authors: McClung
authors: Military Nutrition Division, United States Army Research Institute of Environmental Medicine (USARIEM), Natick, MA 01760, United States.
authors: Erin
authors: E
authors: Gaffney-Stomberg
authors: Department of Nutritional Science, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, United States.
authors: Jane J
authors: JJ
authors: Lee
mesh_terms: D056352:Athletes; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007501:Iron / Q000097:blood / Q000378:metabolism; D008903:Minerals / Q000097:blood* / Q000378:metabolism; D009751:Nutritional Requirements; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000097:blood; D014815:Vitamins / Q000097:blood* / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D008903:Minerals; D014815:Vitamins; D014807:Vitamin D; D007501:Iron
keywords: Calcium; Exercise; Female athlete; Iron; Vitamin D