title: Fetal sex-based differences in maternal hormones, angiogenic factors, and immune mediators during pregnancy and the postpartum period.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Several pregnancy complications have disparities based on the sex of the fetus. It is unknown whether the sex of the fetus differentially alters the maternal immune milieu, potentially contributing to the observed differences.
  
  
  METHODS
  Using maternal plasma collected during 38 uncomplicated pregnancies (19 males, 19 females), we compared levels of cytokines, sex hormones, and angiogenic factors throughout gestation and postpartum.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Male fetal sex was associated with higher levels of proinflammatory cytokines (G-CSF, IL-12p70, IL-21, and IL-33) and angiogenic factors (PlGF and VEGF-A) compared with female fetal sex at multiple timepoints. Female fetal sex was associated with higher levels of regulatory cytokines (IL-5, IL-9, IL-17, and IL-25). IL-27 increased throughout pregnancy regardless of fetal sex. There was no fetal sex-based difference in analyte concentrations at the postpartum measurement.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Women carrying a male fetus exhibit a more proinflammatory/proangiogenic immune milieu than women carrying a female fetus.
authors.affiliation: Mayo Graduate School, Mayo Clinic, Rochester, MN, USA.
authors.forename: Elizabeth Ann L
authors.initials: EA
authors.lastname: Enninga
authors.forename: Wendy K
authors.initials: WK
authors.lastname: Nevala
authors.forename: Douglas J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Creedon
authors.forename: Svetomir N
authors.initials: SN
authors.lastname: Markovic
authors.forename: Shernan G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Holtan
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D042501:Angiogenic Proteins / Q000097:blood*; D005260:Female; D005333:Fetus / Q000502:physiology*; D005865:Gestational Age; D006728:Hormones / Q000097:blood*; D006801:Humans; D018836:Inflammation Mediators / Q000097:blood*; D007378:Interleukins / Q000097:blood; D008297:Male; D049590:Postpartum Period / Q000097:blood*; D011247:Pregnancy / Q000097:blood*; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000453:epidemiology; D012306:Risk; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D042501:Angiogenic Proteins; D006728:Hormones; D018836:Inflammation Mediators; D007378:Interleukins
keywords: Angiogenesis; fetal sex; immunology; inflammation; longitudinal; pregnancy
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