title: Was Sir William Crookes epistemically virtuous?
abstract: The aim of this paper is to use Sir William Crookes' researches into psychical phenomena as a sustained case study of the role of epistemic virtues within scientific enquiry. Despite growing interest in virtues in science, there are few integrated historical and philosophical studies, and even fewer studies focussing on controversial or 'fringe' sciences where, one might suppose, certain epistemic virtues (like open-mindedness and tolerance) may be subjected to sterner tests. Using the virtue of epistemic courage as my focus, it emerges that Crookes' psychical researches were indeed epistemically courageous, but that this judgment must be grounded in sensitivity to the motivational complexity and context-sensitivity of the exercise of epistemic virtues. The paper then considers Crookes' remarks on the relationship between epistemic virtuousness and the intellectual integrity and public duties of scientists, thereby placing epistemic virtues in the context of wider debates about the authority of science in late modern societies. I conclude that Crookes' researches into psychical phenomena offer instructive lessons for historians of science and virtue epistemologists concerning the complexity and contextuality of epistemic virtues, and the profitable forms that future studies of virtues in science could take.
authors.affiliation: Department of Philosophy, Durham University, 50 Old Elvet, Durham, County Durham DH1 3HN, United Kingdom. Electronic address: i.j.kidd@durham.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Ian James
authors.initials: IJ
authors.lastname: Kidd
mesh_terms: D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D019359:Knowledge; D010268:Parapsychology / Q000266:history*; D010684:Philosophy / Q000266:history*; D012586:Science / Q000266:history; D006113:United Kingdom
keywords: Epistemic virtues; Psychical research; Sir William Crookes; Spiritualism; Virtue epistemology