title: Recognition and repair of chemically heterogeneous structures at DNA ends.
abstract: Exposure to environmental toxicants and stressors, radiation, pharmaceutical drugs, inflammation, cellular respiration, and routine DNA metabolism all lead to the production of cytotoxic DNA strand breaks. Akin to splintered wood, DNA breaks are not "clean." Rather, DNA breaks typically lack DNA 5'-phosphate and 3'-hydroxyl moieties required for DNA synthesis and DNA ligation. Failure to resolve damage at DNA ends can lead to abnormal DNA replication and repair, and is associated with genomic instability, mutagenesis, neurological disease, ageing and carcinogenesis. An array of chemically heterogeneous DNA termini arises from spontaneously generated DNA single-strand and double-strand breaks (SSBs and DSBs), and also from normal and/or inappropriate DNA metabolism by DNA polymerases, DNA ligases and topoisomerases. As a front line of defense to these genotoxic insults, eukaryotic cells have accrued an arsenal of enzymatic first responders that bind and protect damaged DNA termini, and enzymatically tailor DNA ends for DNA repair synthesis and ligation. These nucleic acid transactions employ direct damage reversal enzymes including Aprataxin (APTX), Polynucleotide kinase phosphatase (PNK), the tyrosyl DNA phosphodiesterases (TDP1 and TDP2), the Ku70/80 complex and DNA polymerase β (POLβ). Nucleolytic processing enzymes such as the MRE11/RAD50/NBS1/CtIP complex, Flap endonuclease (FEN1) and the apurinic endonucleases (APE1 and APE2) also act in the chemical "cleansing" of DNA breaks to prevent genomic instability and disease, and promote progression of DNA- and RNA-DNA damage response (DDR and RDDR) pathways. Here, we provide an overview of cellular first responders dedicated to the detection and repair of abnormal DNA termini.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Structural Biology, National Institute of Environmental Health Sciences, NIH, DHHS, North Carolina.
authors.forename: Sara N
authors.initials: SN
authors.lastname: Andres
authors.forename: Matthew J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Schellenberg
authors.forename: Bret D
authors.initials: BD
authors.lastname: Wallace
authors.forename: Percy
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Tumbale
authors.forename: R Scott
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Williams
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004247:DNA / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000235:genetics*; D004249:DNA Damage / Q000235:genetics*; D004260:DNA Repair / Q000235:genetics*; D018450:Disease Progression; D042822:Genomic Instability; D006801:Humans; D009690:Nucleic Acid Conformation
chemical_list: D004247:DNA
keywords: DNA damage response; X-ray crystallography; cancer; neurodegeneration
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1994 Nov 11;269(45):27855-62
references.pmid: 7961715
references.citation: Genes Dev. 2011 May 15;25(10):1091-104
references.pmid: 21511873
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2008 Jun 27;4(6):e1000110
references.pmid: 18584027
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2012 Dec;19(12):1372-7
references.pmid: 23104058
references.citation: EMBO J. 2014 Mar 3;33(5):482-500
references.pmid: 24493214
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009 Dec 01;4(12):e8104
references.pmid: 19956605
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2008 Feb 1;7(2):292-302
references.pmid: 18077224
references.citation: Curr Med Chem Anticancer Agents. 2005 Jul;5(4):363-72
references.pmid: 16101488
references.citation: Ann Neurol. 2007 Feb;61(2):162-74
references.pmid: 17315206
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2010 Jun 4;9(6):690-9
references.pmid: 20399152
references.citation: Nat Struct Biol. 1995 Jul;2(7):561-8
references.pmid: 7664124
references.citation: Science. 1994 Jun 24;264(5167):1891-903
references.pmid: 7516580
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 1999 Sep 1;27(17):3494-502
references.pmid: 10446239
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1998 May 1;273(18):11121-6
references.pmid: 9556598
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 2004 Jan 9;335(2):573-82
references.pmid: 14672664
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2004 Jul 23;15(2):209-20
references.pmid: 15260972
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2012 Apr 20;287(17):13686-93
references.pmid: 22362780
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2005 Dec 8;4(12):1347-57
references.pmid: 16172026
references.citation: Nat Struct Biol. 2001 Oct;8(10):838-42
references.pmid: 11573086
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1997 Jul 8;94(14):7166-9
references.pmid: 9207062
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2001 Oct;29(2):184-8
references.pmid: 11586299
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2001 Dec 7;276(49):46290-6
references.pmid: 11591703
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2011 Sep 9;286(36):31490-500
references.pmid: 21778232
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2011 Sep 16;286(37):32638-50
references.pmid: 21775435
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2009 Mar;29(5):1354-62
references.pmid: 19103743
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2010 Apr;38(6):e85
references.pmid: 20008099
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2005 Oct 28;280(43):36518-28
references.pmid: 16141202
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2005 Mar 4;17(5):657-70
references.pmid: 15749016
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2011 Oct;7(10):e1002310
references.pmid: 21998596
references.citation: Nature. 2014 Feb 6;506(7486):111-5
references.pmid: 24362567
references.citation: Mol Cell. 1998 Apr;1(5):741-8
references.pmid: 9660957
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2012 Aug;40(14):6608-19
references.pmid: 22508754
references.citation: Nature. 2010 Apr 22;464(7292):1214-7
references.pmid: 20383123
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2011 Oct 09;18(11):1189-95
references.pmid: 21984210
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2011 Jul 19;50(28):6273-9
references.pmid: 21696131
references.citation: Chem Res Toxicol. 2010 Apr 19;23(4):766-70
references.pmid: 20232790
references.citation: EMBO J. 1999 Apr 1;18(7):2008-18
references.pmid: 10202163
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 1994 Feb 11;236(1):275-85
references.pmid: 7508984
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2010 Dec 24;285(52):40479-88
references.pmid: 20952393
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2006 May 10;34(9):2508-15
references.pmid: 16687656
references.citation: Biochem Soc Trans. 2011 Oct;39(5):1387-92, suppl 2 p following 1392
references.pmid: 21936820
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2012 Jun 17;19(7):693-700
references.pmid: 22705791
references.citation: Environ Mol Mutagen. 2013 Dec;54(9):691-704
references.pmid: 24123395
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1998 Jun 12;273(24):15263-70
references.pmid: 9614142
references.citation: Nature. 2000 Jan 27;403(6768):451-6
references.pmid: 10667800
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2010 Jul 1;9(7):835-41
references.pmid: 20471329
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1999 Mar 26;274(13):8516-23
references.pmid: 10085084
references.citation: Cell. 2001 May 18;105(4):473-85
references.pmid: 11371344
references.citation: Mol Cell. 1998 Jun;1(7):969-79
references.pmid: 9651580
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2004 Jun;11(6):519-25
references.pmid: 15133503
references.citation: Mech Ageing Dev. 2013 Oct;134(10):440-8
references.pmid: 23643943
references.citation: Chem Rev. 2009 Jul;109(7):2894-902
references.pmid: 19476377
references.citation: Nature. 2007 Nov 22;450(7169):509-14
references.pmid: 17965729
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2002 Oct;32(2):267-72
references.pmid: 12244316
references.citation: ACS Chem Biol. 2013 Jan 18;8(1):82-95
references.pmid: 23259582
references.citation: Curr Biol. 1997 Aug 1;7(8):588-98
references.pmid: 9259561
references.citation: Annu Rev Biochem. 2013;82:119-38
references.pmid: 23451868
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2012 May;40(10):4507-19
references.pmid: 22319208
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2011 Nov 4;44(3):385-96
references.pmid: 22055185
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2007 Sep 21;282(38):28004-13
references.pmid: 17650498
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Mar 3;434(7029):108-13
references.pmid: 15744309
references.citation: Antioxid Redox Signal. 2014 Feb 1;20(4):678-707
references.pmid: 23834463
references.citation: Cell Mol Life Sci. 2005 Feb;62(4):485-91
references.pmid: 15719174
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2012 Jan;40(2):914-27
references.pmid: 21937514
references.citation: Trends Biochem Sci. 2011 May;36(5):262-71
references.pmid: 21353781
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2006 Aug 22;45(33):10140-52
references.pmid: 16906772
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1972 Sep 12;11(19):3610-8
references.pmid: 4626532
references.citation: Hum Mol Genet. 2009 Nov 1;18(21):4102-17
references.pmid: 19643912
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2011 Apr;18(4):423-31
references.pmid: 21441914
references.citation: Cell. 1998 May 1;93(3):477-86
references.pmid: 9590181
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2013 Mar 7;49(5):1010-5
references.pmid: 23375499
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2009 May;9(5):327-37
references.pmid: 19377505
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2002 Feb 1;30(3):823-9
references.pmid: 11809897
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2001 Oct;29(2):189-93
references.pmid: 11586300
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2011 Jan;18(1):75-9
references.pmid: 21131982
references.citation: Science. 1995 Aug 4;269(5224):699-702
references.pmid: 7624801
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Sep 15;437(7057):440-3
references.pmid: 16163361
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2011 Jan;18(1):80-4
references.pmid: 21131978
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Dec 17;110(51):20437-42
references.pmid: 24218597
references.citation: Nature. 2011 Oct 16;479(7372):241-4
references.pmid: 22002605
references.citation: Nat Rev Genet. 2008 Aug;9(8):619-31
references.pmid: 18626472
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2009 Feb;37(3):738-48
references.pmid: 19042970
references.citation: Cell. 1995 Sep 8;82(5):849-56
references.pmid: 7671312
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2010 Dec;17(12):1478-85
references.pmid: 21102445
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1980 Oct 28;19(22):5087-92
references.pmid: 6779863
references.citation: Nature. 2001 Aug 9;412(6847):607-14
references.pmid: 11493912
references.citation: Parkinsonism Relat Disord. 2007 Apr;13(3):139-42
references.pmid: 17049295
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2007 May;27(10):3793-803
references.pmid: 17353262
references.citation: Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1988 Nov 30;157(1):183-9
references.pmid: 2848517
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Jun 25;110(26):10592-7
references.pmid: 23754435
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2012 Dec;12(12):801-17
references.pmid: 23175119
references.citation: Mutat Res. 2001 May 10;485(4):283-307
references.pmid: 11585362
references.citation: EMBO J. 2004 Oct 1;23(19):3874-85
references.pmid: 15385968
references.citation: Nat Chem Biol. 2010 Oct;6(10):774-81
references.pmid: 20729855
references.citation: Nature. 2010 Sep 2;467(7311):108-11
references.pmid: 20811460
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1997 Oct 17;272(42):26441-7
references.pmid: 9334220
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2004 Nov 2;3(11):1493-502
references.pmid: 15380105
references.citation: Nature. 2009 Oct 1;461(7264):674-8
references.pmid: 19794497
references.citation: Nat Rev Cancer. 2009 May;9(5):338-50
references.pmid: 19377506
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2010 Mar;42(3):245-9
references.pmid: 20118933
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2010 Jan 8;285(2):1414-23
references.pmid: 19893054
references.citation: Chem Res Toxicol. 2008 Apr;21(4):936-43
references.pmid: 18293940
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2013 Mar 1;12(3):205-11
references.pmid: 23305949
references.citation: Cancer Res. 1999 Jun 1;59(11):2522-6
references.pmid: 10363965
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2004 Mar 30;43(12):3731-9
references.pmid: 15035644
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2000 Jul 21;275(29):22427-34
references.pmid: 10806210
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2011 Dec 10;10(12):1232-42
references.pmid: 21982441
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1997 Mar 21;272(12):7792-6
references.pmid: 9065442
references.citation: Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 1982 Dec 31;109(4):1297-302
references.pmid: 6301434
references.citation: Chem Biol. 2003 Feb;10(2):139-47
references.pmid: 12618186
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1999 Aug 20;274(34):24176-86
references.pmid: 10446192
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Sep 4;109(36):14634-9
references.pmid: 22908287
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2007 Mar 13;46(10):2856-64
references.pmid: 17298034
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1993 Apr 6;32(13):3221-37
references.pmid: 7681688
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2012 Jul 30;209(8):1419-26
references.pmid: 22802351
references.citation: Cell. 2011 Apr 15;145(2):198-211
references.pmid: 21496641
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1994 Jul 8;269(27):18096-101
references.pmid: 8027071
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Dec 27;108(52):21022-7
references.pmid: 22171004
references.citation: Neurology. 2005 Feb 8;64(3):539-41
references.pmid: 15699391
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2011 Mar;39(6):2144-52
references.pmid: 21087997
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2009 Jul;37(12):3946-58
references.pmid: 19401441
references.citation: Trends Biochem Sci. 2012 Apr;37(4):162-72
references.pmid: 22285516
references.citation: Cell. 2004 Jan 9;116(1):39-50
references.pmid: 14718165
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2008 Jul 25;283(30):21074-83
references.pmid: 18515798
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2010 Jul 27;49(29):6165-76
references.pmid: 20518483
references.citation: Nat Struct Biol. 2000 Mar;7(3):176-8
references.pmid: 10700268
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2013 Oct;33(20):4008-16
references.pmid: 23938298
references.citation: Cell. 2011 Apr 15;145(2):171-2
references.pmid: 21496637
references.citation: Science. 2005 Apr 22;308(5721):551-4
references.pmid: 15790808
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2013 Mar;9(3):e1003420
references.pmid: 23555316
references.citation: Biochem Cell Biol. 2013 Feb;91(1):31-41
references.pmid: 23442139
references.citation: Cell. 2008 Oct 3;135(1):97-109
references.pmid: 18854158
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1996 Jul 26;271(30):17811-5
references.pmid: 8663612
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Apr 13;107(15):6805-10
references.pmid: 20351257
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2006 Jul 13;5(7):799-809
references.pmid: 16713756
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Mar 16;107(11):4949-54
references.pmid: 20194773
references.citation: Cell. 2002 Nov 15;111(4):495-505
references.pmid: 12437923
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Oct 15;93(21):11534-9
references.pmid: 8876170
references.citation: EMBO J. 2000 Nov 15;19(22):5962-70
references.pmid: 11080143
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1998 Aug 21;273(34):21447-50
references.pmid: 9705271
references.citation: Cell. 2003 Feb 7;112(3):391-401
references.pmid: 12581528
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Dec 27;108(52):20855-6
references.pmid: 22184240
references.citation: Nat Struct Biol. 2001 Dec;8(12):1015-9
references.pmid: 11702069
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2004 Oct;24(19):8356-65
references.pmid: 15367657
references.citation: Cell. 2009 Oct 2;139(1):87-99
references.pmid: 19804755
references.citation: Structure. 2002 Feb;10(2):237-48
references.pmid: 11839309
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2003 Oct 7;2(10):1087-100
references.pmid: 13679147
references.citation: Nature. 2006 Oct 12;443(7112):713-6
references.pmid: 16964241
references.citation: Nature. 2004 Nov 25;432(7016):473-8
references.pmid: 15565146
references.citation: Science. 2011 Jun 24;332(6037):1561-4
references.pmid: 21700875
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2012 Sep 28;47(6):980-6
references.pmid: 22864116
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1996 Oct 1;35(39):12742-61
references.pmid: 8841118
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1983 Dec 25;258(24):15365-70
references.pmid: 6317692
references.citation: Mol Cell. 1997 Dec;1(1):89-97
references.pmid: 9659906
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1998 May 5;37(18):6456-64
references.pmid: 9572863
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2008 Dec 5;283(49):33994-4001
references.pmid: 18836178
references.citation: Eur J Cancer. 1998 Sep;34(10):1514-21
references.pmid: 9893622
references.citation: Science. 2014 Jan 17;343(6168):260-1
references.pmid: 24436412
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2012 Oct 16;109(42):16852-7
references.pmid: 23035246
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1984 Jul 25;259(14):9177-81
references.pmid: 6086624
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2014 Mar;42(5):3125-37
references.pmid: 24371269
references.citation: Biochem Cell Biol. 2007 Aug;85(4):509-20
references.pmid: 17713585
references.citation: Cell. 2011 Apr 15;145(2):212-23
references.pmid: 21496642
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 2002 Feb 22;316(3):853-66
references.pmid: 11866537
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2013 Dec 17;110(51):20354-5
references.pmid: 24282304
references.citation: Chem Rev. 2006 Feb;106(2):687-99
references.pmid: 16464020
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2011 Mar 7;10(3):344-8
references.pmid: 21227759
references.citation: EMBO J. 1998 Nov 2;17(21):6404-11
references.pmid: 9799248
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2013 Aug;12(8):558-67
references.pmid: 23712058
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2009 Oct;37(18):6161-73
references.pmid: 19671525
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 May 3;108(18):7437-42
references.pmid: 21502511
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2001 Mar;21(5):1656-61
references.pmid: 11238902
references.citation: Int J Biochem Mol Biol. 2010;1(1):12-25
references.pmid: 21968700
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2012 Mar 27;51(12):2407-16
references.pmid: 22390730
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2010 Oct 22;40(2):179-204
references.pmid: 20965415
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2011 Sep 30;286(39):33845-53
references.pmid: 21816818
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 2003 Jul 25;330(5):1027-37
references.pmid: 12860125
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2007 Apr 1;6(4):443-53
references.pmid: 17118715
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2006 Mar 7;5(3):362-8
references.pmid: 16388993
references.citation: Cell. 2001 Jan 12;104(1):107-17
references.pmid: 11163244
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Aug 2;108(31):12663-8
references.pmid: 21768349
references.citation: ISRN Mol Biol. 2012;2012:
references.pmid: 24236237
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 1994 Jan;14(1):68-76
references.pmid: 8264637
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 2011 Sep 2;411(5):960-71
references.pmid: 21762700
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2009 Nov;5(11):e1000722
references.pmid: 19911044
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2009 Apr;37(5):1701-12
references.pmid: 19155274
references.citation: Cell. 1999 Dec 10;99(6):577-87
references.pmid: 10612394
references.citation: Biochemistry. 1993 Mar 9;32(9):2186-93
references.pmid: 8443160
references.citation: Cell. 2012 May 25;149(5):1008-22
references.pmid: 22579044
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2009 Jun;29(11):3163-72
references.pmid: 19332554
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2010 Mar;38(5):1489-503
references.pmid: 20008512
references.citation: Cell. 2013 Jul 3;154(1):157-68
references.pmid: 23827680
references.citation: Cell. 2008 Sep 19;134(6):981-94
references.pmid: 18805091
references.citation: Nat Immunol. 2003 Feb;4(2):145-53
references.pmid: 12524539
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2005 Dec 8;4(12):1442-9
references.pmid: 16199212
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1997 Sep 26;272(39):24159-64
references.pmid: 9305865
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2007 Mar 30;282(13):9469-9474
references.pmid: 17276982
references.citation: EMBO J. 2005 Jun 15;24(12):2224-33
references.pmid: 15920477
references.citation: Curr Opin Genet Dev. 2008 Feb;18(1):80-6
references.pmid: 18343102
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2006 Aug 13;5(8):986-96
references.pmid: 16955546
references.citation: J Mol Biol. 2004 May 14;338(5):895-906
references.pmid: 15111055
references.citation: EMBO J. 2002 Jun 3;21(11):2827-32
references.pmid: 12032095
references.citation: Biochemistry. 2011 Jan 11;50(1):136-43
references.pmid: 21155533
references.citation: Nature. 1997 Jul 31;388(6641):492-5
references.pmid: 9242410
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2005 Sep 16;19(6):724-6
references.pmid: 16168369
references.citation: Mol Cell Biol. 2003 Apr;23(7):2309-15
references.pmid: 12640116
references.citation: EMBO J. 1996 Dec 2;15(23):6662-70
references.pmid: 8978692
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2011 Jan 7;286(1):403-9
references.pmid: 21030584
references.citation: Chem Res Toxicol. 2006 Feb;19(2):300-9
references.pmid: 16485907
references.citation: Mol Cell. 2009 Jan 16;33(1):117-23
references.pmid: 19150433
references.citation: DNA Repair (Amst). 2008 Mar 1;7(3):452-63
references.pmid: 18206427
references.citation: Nature. 2008 Oct 9;455(7214):770-4
references.pmid: 18806779
references.citation: PLoS Genet. 2013;9(3):e1003226
references.pmid: 23505375
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 2002 Jul 26;277(30):27162-8
references.pmid: 12023295
references.citation: Nature. 2002 Feb 7;415(6872):655-9
references.pmid: 11832948
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2012 Feb;40(4):1868-78
references.pmid: 22287571
references.citation: Genes Dev. 1998 Oct 1;12(19):3137-43
references.pmid: 9765213
references.citation: Cell. 2004 Apr 2;117(1):17-28
references.pmid: 15066279
references.citation: Nucleic Acids Res. 2011 Sep 1;39(17):7816-27
references.pmid: 21652643
references.citation: Cell. 1994 May 20;77(4):609-16
references.pmid: 8187179
references.citation: Structure. 1997 Jun 15;5(6):763-74
references.pmid: 9261067
references.citation: Chem Res Toxicol. 2008 Jan;21(1):206-19
references.pmid: 18052112
references.citation: Structure. 2010 Nov 10;18(11):1431-42
references.pmid: 21070942
references.citation: Science. 1997 Oct 10;278(5336):286-90
references.pmid: 9323207
references.citation: J Med Chem. 2004 Feb 12;47(4):829-37
references.pmid: 14761185
references.citation: Nat Struct Mol Biol. 2012 Dec;19(12):1363-71
references.pmid: 23104055