title: Fetal exposure to parental smoking and the risk of type 2 diabetes in adult women.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We evaluated the associations of both maternal and paternal smoking during pregnancy with the risk of type 2 diabetes in daughters and explored whether any association was explained by weight at birth or BMI throughout life.
  
  
  METHODS
  We used data from 34,453 participants of the Nurses' Health Study II. We used Cox proportional hazards models to examine the associations of maternal and paternal smoking during pregnancy with incidence of type 2 diabetes in daughters between 1989 and 2009.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Maternal smoking during the first trimester only was associated with the risk of type 2 diabetes in the offspring, independent of confounders, birth weight, and later-life BMI (fully adjusted hazard ratio 1.34 [95% CI 1.01, 1.76]). In the age-adjusted models, both continued maternal smoking during pregnancy and paternal smoking tended to be associated with an increased risk of type 2 diabetes in daughters. Perinatal and adult life variables did not explain these associations, but additional adjustment for current BMI fully attenuated the effect estimates.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The associations of maternal and paternal smoking during pregnancy with the risk of type 2 diabetes in daughters were largely explained by BMI throughout the life course. Further studies are needed to explore the role of first-trimester-only maternal smoking on insulin resistance in the offspring. Also, similar effect estimates for maternal and paternal smoking suggest that the associations reflect shared family-based or lifestyle-related factors.
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands v.jaddoe@erasmusmc.nl.
authors.forename: Vincent W V
authors.initials: VW
authors.lastname: Jaddoe
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, the Netherlands Obstetrics and Gynecology Epidemiology Center, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
authors.forename: Layla L
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: de Jonge
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Saw Swee Hock School of Public Health and Department of Medicine, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore and National University Health System, Singapore.
authors.forename: Rob M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: van Dam
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
authors.forename: Walter C
authors.initials: WC
authors.lastname: Willett
authors.affiliation: Obstetrics and Gynecology Epidemiology Center, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
authors.forename: Holly
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Harris
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
authors.forename: Meir J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Stampfer
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
authors.forename: Frank B
authors.initials: FB
authors.lastname: Hu
authors.affiliation: Obstetrics and Gynecology Epidemiology Center, Department of Obstetrics, Gynecology and Reproductive Biology, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA Department of Epidemiology, Harvard School of Public Health, Boston, MA Channing Division of Network Medicine, Department of Medicine, Brigham and Women's Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA.
authors.forename: Karin B
authors.initials: KB
authors.lastname: Michels
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001724:Birth Weight; D015331:Cohort Studies; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000209:etiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D007333:Insulin Resistance; D008019:Life Style; D008297:Male; D009679:Nuclear Family; D010290:Parents; D011247:Pregnancy; D011261:Pregnancy Trimester, First; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000453:epidemiology*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012306:Risk; D012907:Smoking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000453:epidemiology; D055815:Young Adult