title: A survey of Australian oysters for the presence of human noroviruses.
abstract: Impending international policies for norovirus in oysters and the lack of Australian data suggested there was a need to undertake a national survey of norovirus in oysters. Two geographically distinct oyster-growing areas from each of three Australian states were sampled on 4 occasions during 2010 and 2011. The sites selected were considered by state shellfish authorities to be the most compromised with respect to the potential for human faecal contamination as identified by shoreline surveys. The oysters were tested for norovirus GI, GII and Escherichia coli. Norovirus GII was detected in two of 120 (1.7%) samples and norovirus GI was not detected. One of the norovirus positive samples was cloned and sequenced as GII.3. Five of 120 (4.2%) samples were found to have more than the guidance concentration of 230 E. coli per 100 g of shellfish but these samples did not contain detectable concentrations of norovirus. The apparently low prevalence of norovirus in oysters from Australian growing areas supports epidemiological data that suggests norovirus contamination of Australian oysters is rare. The results from this study emphasise the need for future norovirus control measures for shellfish to be commensurate with the risk associated with the growing area.
authors.affiliation: Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture-School of Agricultural Science, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 51, Hobart 7001, Tasmania, Australia; South Australian Research and Development Institute, G.P.O Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia. Electronic address: Felicity.Brake@sa.gov.au.
authors.forename: Felicity
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Brake
authors.affiliation: Tasmanian Institute of Agriculture-School of Agricultural Science, University of Tasmania, Private Bag 51, Hobart 7001, Tasmania, Australia. Electronic address: Tom.Ross@Utas.edu.au.
authors.forename: Tom
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Ross
authors.affiliation: South Australian Research and Development Institute, G.P.O Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia.
authors.forename: Geoffrey
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Holds
authors.affiliation: South Australian Research and Development Institute, G.P.O Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia. Electronic address: andreas.kiermeier@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kiermeier
authors.affiliation: South Australian Research and Development Institute, G.P.O Box 397, Adelaide, South Australia 5001, Australia. Electronic address: seafoodsafetyassessment@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Catherine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: McLeod
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001315:Australia; D004926:Escherichia coli / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D005243:Feces / Q000382:microbiology / Q000821:virology; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis*; D006801:Humans; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D029322:Norovirus / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D010125:Ostreidae / Q000382:microbiology / Q000821:virology*; D012758:Shellfish / Q000382:microbiology / Q000821:virology*; D014876:Water Pollution
keywords: Escherichia coli; Foodborne pathogen; Norovirus; Shellfish