title: Instant coffee consumption may be associated with higher risk of metabolic syndrome in Korean adults.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Cumulative evidence suggests that coffee consumption may have beneficial effects on metabolic diseases; however, few previous studies have considered the types of coffee consumed and the additives used. We investigated the relationship between coffee consumption and metabolic syndrome (MetSyn) and its components.
  
  
  METHODS
  We analyzed 17,953 Korean adults, aged 19-65 years, using cross-sectional data from the Korean National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey (KNHANES, 2007-2011). Coffee consumption level, types of coffee consumed, and the additives used were assessed based on a food frequency questionnaire and 24-h recall. Demographic and lifestyle factors were assessed using self-administered questionnaires. Data on metabolic biomarkers were obtained from a health examination. Multivariable logistic regression was used to determine the odds ratios of prevalent metabolic syndrome and its components according to frequency and type of coffee consumption.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that 76% of the subjects were habitual coffee drinkers, most of whom consumed instant coffee mix containing sugar and powder creamer. After multivariable adjustment, the odds ratios (95% CI) comparing those who consumed coffee ≥3 times/day with those who consumed coffee <1 time/week were 1.37 (1.15-1.63) for obesity, 1.33 (1.11-1.59) for abdominal obesity, 1.28 (1.09-1.51) for hypo-HDL cholesterolemia, and 1.37 (1.10-1.72) for metabolic syndrome. Instant-coffee drinkers were observed to have elevated risks of these metabolic conditions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Consumption of coffee, particularly instant coffee mix, may have harmful effects on MetSyn, perhaps partly deriving from excessive intake of sugar and powder creamer.
authors.affiliation: Department of Food and Nutrition, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Hyo-Jin
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Kim
authors.affiliation: College of Veterinary Medicine and Research Institute for Veterinary Science, Seoul National University, Seoul, Republic of Korea.
authors.forename: Seongbeom
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Cho
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology and Community Health, School of Public Health, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, USA.
authors.forename: David R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Jacobs
authors.affiliation: Department of Food and Nutrition, Yeungnam University, Gyeongsan, Gyeongbuk, Republic of Korea. Electronic address: kypark@ynu.ac.kr.
authors.forename: Kyong
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Park
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D044466:Asian People; D003069:Coffee / Q000009:adverse effects*; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003611:Dairy Products; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008019:Life Style; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D024821:Metabolic Syndrome / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D008875:Middle Aged; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D009765:Obesity / Q000150:complications; D016017:Odds Ratio; D015995:Prevalence; D056910:Republic of Korea / Q000453:epidemiology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D003069:Coffee
keywords: Instant coffee; Korean adults; Metabolic syndrome