title: Urinary sodium excretion and dietary sources of sodium intake in Chinese postmenopausal women with prehypertension.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Reducing salt intake in communities is one of the most effective and affordable public health strategies to prevent hypertension, stroke and renal disease. The present study aimed to determine the sodium intake in Hong Kong Chinese postmenopausal women and identify the major food sources contributing to sodium intake and urine excretion.
  
  
  METHODS
  This was a cross-sectional study among 655 Chinese postmenopausal women with prehypertension who were screened for a randomized controlled trial. Data collection included 24 h urine collection for the measurement of sodium, potassium and creatinine, 3-day dietary records, anthropometric measures and questionnaire survey on demographic data and dietary habits.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The average salt intake estimated from urinary excretion was 7.8 ± 3.2 g/d with 82.1% women above WHO recommendation of 5 g/day. Food groups as soup (21.6%), rice and noodles (13.5%), baked cereals (12.3%), salted/preserved foods (10.8%), Chinese dim sum (10.2%) and sea foods (10.1%) were the major contributors of non-discretionary salt. Discretionary salt use in cooking made a modest contribution to overall intake. Vegetable and fruit intake, age, sodium intake from salted foods, sea foods and soup were the independent determinants of urinary sodium excretion.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our data revealed a significant room for reduction of the sodium intake. Efforts to reduce sodium from diets in Hong Kong Chinese postmenopausal women should focus on both processed foods and discretionary salt during cooking. Sodium reduction in soup and increase in fruit intake would be potentially effective strategy for reducing sodium.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine &Therapeutics, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, PR, China.
authors.forename: Zhao-Min
authors.initials: ZM
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.affiliation: Division of Epidemiology, The Jockey Club School of Public Health and Primary Care, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, PR, China.
authors.forename: Suzanne C
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Ho
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine &Therapeutics, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, PR, China.
authors.forename: Nelson
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Tang
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine &Therapeutics, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, PR, China.
authors.forename: Ruth
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Chan
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Statistics and Epidemiology, School of Public Health, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, PR, China.
authors.forename: Yu-Ming
authors.initials: YM
authors.lastname: Chen
authors.affiliation: Department of Medicine &Therapeutics, the Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong Special Administrative Region, PR, China.
authors.forename: Jean
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Woo
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D044466:Asian People; D002755:Choice Behavior; D003404:Creatinine / Q000652:urine; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D017698:Postmenopause / Q000652:urine*; D011188:Potassium; D058246:Prehypertension / Q000652:urine*; D012044:Regression Analysis; D012964:Sodium / Q000652:urine*; D012982:Sodium, Dietary / Q000652:urine*; D013649:Taste
chemical_list: D012982:Sodium, Dietary; D012964:Sodium; D003404:Creatinine; D011188:Potassium
references.citation: Lancet. 1971 May 29;1(7709):1133-4
references.pmid: 4102655
references.citation: Hong Kong Med J. 1998 Dec;4(4):383-388
references.pmid: 11830701
references.citation: Circulation. 2012 Jun 26;125(25):3108-16
references.pmid: 22711274
references.citation: Int J Epidemiol. 2009 Jun;38(3):791-813
references.pmid: 19351697
references.citation: Eur J Clin Nutr. 2003 Feb;57(2):299-304
references.pmid: 12571663
references.citation: Public Health Nutr. 2008 Jan;11(1):83-94
references.pmid: 17582243
references.citation: Clin Sci (Lond). 1987 Jan;72(1):95-102
references.pmid: 3802726
references.citation: Circulation. 2014 Mar 11;129(10):1121-8
references.pmid: 24425751
references.citation: Lancet. 2007 Dec 15;370(9604):2044-53
references.pmid: 18063027
references.citation: Am J Epidemiol. 2001 May 15;153(10):996-1006
references.pmid: 11384956
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2014 Feb;99(2):334-43
references.pmid: 24257724
references.citation: Hypertension. 1982 Nov-Dec;4(6):805-8
references.pmid: 7141607
references.citation: BMJ. 2007 Apr 28;334(7599):885-8
references.pmid: 17449506
references.citation: Lancet. 1987 Feb 21;1(8530):426-9
references.pmid: 2880223
references.citation: Hypertension. 2003 Dec;42(6):1093-9
references.pmid: 14610100
references.citation: J Obes. 2013;2013:359763
references.pmid: 23984051
references.citation: JAMA. 2011 Nov 23;306(20):2229-38
references.pmid: 22110105
references.citation: Adv Nutr. 2013 May 01;4(3):368S-77S
references.pmid: 23674806
references.citation: Lancet. 1986 Feb 8;1(8476):307-10
references.pmid: 2868172
references.citation: Nutr Rev. 2013 Jun;71(6):402-11
references.pmid: 23731449
references.citation: Lancet. 2011 Jul 30;378(9789):380-2
references.pmid: 21803192
references.citation: Circulation. 2014 Mar 4;129(9):981-9
references.pmid: 24415713
references.citation: J Am Diet Assoc. 2010 May;110(5):736-45
references.pmid: 20430135
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2010 Feb;91(2):413-20
references.pmid: 19955402
references.citation: Osteoporos Int. 2001;12(9):723-31
references.pmid: 11605737
references.citation: Eur J Clin Nutr. 2002 May;56 Suppl 2:S12-7
references.pmid: 12082513
references.citation: Physiol Rev. 2005 Apr;85(2):679-715
references.pmid: 15788708
references.citation: Eur J Clin Nutr. 2006 Oct;60(10):1160-7
references.pmid: 16639417
references.citation: J Am Coll Nutr. 1991 Aug;10(4):383-93
references.pmid: 1910064
references.citation: J Am Coll Nutr. 2006 Jun;25(3 Suppl):262S-270S
references.pmid: 16772638
references.citation: Hypertension. 2004 Jun;43(6):1332-7
references.pmid: 15117915
references.citation: Nutr Rev. 1995 May;53(5):131-9
references.pmid: 7666985
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 1997 Feb;65(2 Suppl):626S-642S
references.pmid: 9022559
references.citation: J Hum Hypertens. 2002 Nov;16(11):761-70
references.pmid: 12444537