title: Hepatitis C virus in the new era: perspectives in epidemiology, prevention, diagnostics and predictors of response to therapy.
abstract: Despite the great successes achieved in the fields of virology and diagnostics, several difficulties affect improvements in hepatitis C virus (HCV) infection control and eradication in the new era. New HCV infections still occur, especially in some of the poorest regions of the world, where HCV is endemic and long-term sequelae have a growing economic and health burden. An HCV vaccine is still no available, despite years of researches and discoveries about the natural history of infection and host-virus interactions: several HCV vaccine candidates have been developed in the last years, targeting different HCV antigens or using alternative delivery systems, but viral variability and adaption ability constitute major challenges for vaccine development. Many new antiviral drugs for HCV therapy are in preclinical or early clinical development, but different limitations affect treatment validity. Treatment predictors are important tools, as they provide some guidance for the management of therapy in patients with chronic HCV infection: in particular, the role of host genomics in HCV infection outcomes in the new era of direct-acting antivirals may evolve for new therapeutic targets, representing a chance for modulated and personalized treatment management, when also very potent therapies will be available. In the present review we discuss the most recent data about HCV epidemiology, the new perspectives for the prevention of HCV infection and the most recent evidence regarding HCV diagnosis, therapy and predictors of response to it.
authors.affiliation: Filippo Ansaldi, Andrea Orsi, Laura Sticchi, Giancarlo Icardi, Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Filippo
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Ansaldi
authors.affiliation: Filippo Ansaldi, Andrea Orsi, Laura Sticchi, Giancarlo Icardi, Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Orsi
authors.affiliation: Filippo Ansaldi, Andrea Orsi, Laura Sticchi, Giancarlo Icardi, Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Sticchi
authors.affiliation: Filippo Ansaldi, Andrea Orsi, Laura Sticchi, Giancarlo Icardi, Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Bianca
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Bruzzone
authors.affiliation: Filippo Ansaldi, Andrea Orsi, Laura Sticchi, Giancarlo Icardi, Department of Health Sciences, University of Genoa, 16132 Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Giancarlo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Icardi
mesh_terms: D000998:Antiviral Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D003906:Developing Countries; D018450:Disease Progression; D024882:Drug Resistance, Viral; D019353:Endemic Diseases / Q000517:prevention & control; D005838:Genotype; D016174:Hepacivirus / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics / Q000472:pathogenicity; D006526:Hepatitis C / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000517:prevention & control; D054884:Host-Pathogen Interactions; D006801:Humans; D010597:Pharmacogenetics; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D012307:Risk Factors; D016896:Treatment Outcome
chemical_list: D000998:Antiviral Agents
keywords: Direct-acting antivirals; Hepatitis C virus diagnosis; Hepatitis C virus epidemiology; Hepatitis C virus vaccine; Predictors of response to hepatitis C virus therapy
references.citation: Hepatology. 1997 Jul;26(1):226-31
references.pmid: 9214474
references.citation: Lancet Infect Dis. 2008 Jun;8(6):379-86
references.pmid: 18501853
references.citation: Hepatology. 2007 Mar;45(3):602-13
references.pmid: 17326154
references.citation: Antimicrob Agents Chemother. 2014;58(2):698-705
references.pmid: 24217701
references.citation: J Exp Med. 2005 Jun 6;201(11):1709-14
references.pmid: 15939787
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Feb;17(2):116-21
references.pmid: 21054664
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Aug 18;436(7053):967-72
references.pmid: 16107837
references.citation: Vox Sang. 1995;68(1):15-8
references.pmid: 7536987
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2010 Aug;139(2):499-509
references.pmid: 20434452
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2012 May;142(6):1340-1350.e1
references.pmid: 22537441
references.citation: J Viral Hepat. 2012 Jan;19 Suppl 1:42-7
references.pmid: 22233413
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2008 Jun;46(6):1901-6
references.pmid: 18400913
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2007 May;132(5):1767-77
references.pmid: 17484874
references.citation: Int J Infect Dis. 2009 Jan;13(1):9-19
references.pmid: 18835208
references.citation: Clin Liver Dis. 2008 Aug;12(3):713-26, xi
references.pmid: 18625436
references.citation: Vox Sang. 2005 Apr;88(3):202-4
references.pmid: 15787732
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2012 Feb 1;205(3):376-83
references.pmid: 22158703
references.citation: Viruses. 2012 Dec;4(12):3281-302
references.pmid: 23342360
references.citation: PLoS One. 2012;7(7):e40159
references.pmid: 22808108
references.citation: World J Hepatol. 2013 Sep 27;5(9):496-504
references.pmid: 24073301
references.citation: Immunol Rev. 2011 Jan;239(1):99-108
references.pmid: 21198667
references.citation: Top Antivir Med. 2012 Oct-Nov;20(4):139-45
references.pmid: 23154254
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2009 Nov;46(3):222-9
references.pmid: 19758839
references.citation: J Virol. 1993 Jul;67(7):3923-30
references.pmid: 7685404
references.citation: Hum Mol Genet. 2011 Sep 1;20(17):3507-16
references.pmid: 21659334
references.citation: Wkly Epidemiol Rec. 1999 Dec 10;74(49):425-7
references.pmid: 10645164
references.citation: Arch Intern Med. 2011 Feb 14;171(3):242-8
references.pmid: 21325115
references.citation: J Hepatol. 2011 Aug;55(2):289-98
references.pmid: 21147189
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Aug 17;107(33):14757-62
references.pmid: 20696911
references.citation: Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2012 Aug;26(4):487-503
references.pmid: 23199507
references.citation: Int J Clin Pract. 2012 Apr;66(4):342-55
references.pmid: 22420497
references.citation: Eur J Public Health. 2012 Apr;22(2):187-92
references.pmid: 21708792
references.citation: Liver Int. 2011 Jul;31 Suppl 2:61-80
references.pmid: 21651703
references.citation: Semin Liver Dis. 2011 Nov;31(4):331-9
references.pmid: 22189973
references.citation: Viruses. 2011 Nov;3(11):2280-300
references.pmid: 22163345
references.citation: Hepatology. 2005 Sep;42(3):683-7
references.pmid: 16032698
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2012 May;142(6):1303-1313.e1
references.pmid: 22537437
references.citation: Hepatology. 2005 Dec;42(6):1429-36
references.pmid: 16317673
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2013 May 10;62(18):362-5
references.pmid: 23657112
references.citation: J Viral Hepat. 2009 Feb;16(2):75-90
references.pmid: 18761607
references.citation: Hepatology. 2012 Apr;55(4):1048-57
references.pmid: 22095516
references.citation: J Viral Hepat. 2011 Nov;18(11):768-78
references.pmid: 20723035
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 1991 Nov;29(11):2528-34
references.pmid: 1663510
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2009 Nov;15(11):1819-22
references.pmid: 19891874
references.citation: Hepatology. 2011 Jan;53(1):336-45
references.pmid: 21254181
references.citation: Z Gastroenterol. 2012 May;50(5):441-4
references.pmid: 22581697
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Feb 15;91(4):1294-8
references.pmid: 7509068
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2009 Oct;41(10):1100-4
references.pmid: 19749758
references.citation: Hepatology. 2012 Jun;55(6):1652-61
references.pmid: 22213025
references.citation: Nature. 2009 Sep 17;461(7262):399-401
references.pmid: 19684573
references.citation: J Viral Hepat. 2006 Jan;13(1):19-27
references.pmid: 16364078
references.citation: Nat Rev Microbiol. 2010 May;8(5):350-60
references.pmid: 20372157
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2007 Apr;132(4):1287-93
references.pmid: 17433322
references.citation: Liver Int. 2011 Jul;31 Suppl 2:30-60
references.pmid: 21651702
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2405-16
references.pmid: 21696307
references.citation: J Virol. 2012 Aug;86(16):8581-91
references.pmid: 22674974
references.citation: Hepatology. 2014 Jun;59(6):2403-12
references.pmid: 24155107
references.citation: J Hepatol. 2006;44(1 Suppl):S19-24
references.pmid: 16356583
references.citation: Science. 1993 Oct 8;262(5131):250-3
references.pmid: 8211145
references.citation: J Viral Hepat. 2012 Aug;19(8):560-7
references.pmid: 22762140
references.citation: Science. 1999 Jul 2;285(5424):110-3
references.pmid: 10390360
references.citation: J Hepatol. 2008 Jan;48(1):148-62
references.pmid: 18022726
references.citation: J Natl Cancer Inst. 2009 Oct 7;101(19):1348-55
references.pmid: 19759364
references.citation: Nature. 2010 Mar 18;464(7287):405-8
references.pmid: 20173735
references.citation: J Immunol. 2001 Mar 1;166(5):3589-98
references.pmid: 11207320
references.citation: Hepatology. 2012 Oct;56(4):1231-9
references.pmid: 22487892
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1992 Jan 1;89(1):187-91
references.pmid: 1309604
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Infect. 2011 Feb;17(2):107-15
references.pmid: 21091831
references.citation: Vaccine. 2007 Feb 9;25(8):1452-63
references.pmid: 17098335
references.citation: Best Pract Res Clin Gastroenterol. 2012 Aug;26(4):413-27
references.pmid: 23199501
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Jun 27;8(6):e67073
references.pmid: 23826196
references.citation: Virus Res. 1993 Oct;30(1):27-41
references.pmid: 7505514
references.citation: J Virol. 1998 May;72(5):3827-36
references.pmid: 9557666
references.citation: J Hepatol. 2011 Jun;54(6):1250-62
references.pmid: 21316497
references.citation: J Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005 Apr;20(4):547-54
references.pmid: 15836702
references.citation: Liver Int. 2009 Jan;29 Suppl 1:57-67
references.pmid: 19207967
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2005 Jun;76(2):208-14
references.pmid: 15834878
references.citation: Hepatology. 2014 Jan;59(1):318-27
references.pmid: 24115039
references.citation: Am J Gastroenterol. 2013 Apr;108(4):471-5
references.pmid: 23552304
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2010 Dec;139(6):1865-76
references.pmid: 20950615
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 May 29;8(5):e64053
references.pmid: 23734184
references.citation: Ann Epidemiol. 2007 Oct;17(10):755-62
references.pmid: 17728145
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2011 Apr;140(4):1334-44
references.pmid: 21237170
references.citation: Nat Clin Pract Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2008 Nov;5(11):610-22
references.pmid: 18838975
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2012 May;142(6):1279-1287.e3
references.pmid: 22537434
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 May 15;104(20):8427-32
references.pmid: 17485666
references.citation: Drug Alcohol Depend. 2007 Dec 1;91(2-3):228-35
references.pmid: 17669601
references.citation: Methods Mol Biol. 2009;510:15-23
references.pmid: 19009250
references.citation: Hepatology. 2010 Apr;51(4):1158-67
references.pmid: 20162613
references.citation: JAMA. 2012 Dec 26;308(24):2584-93
references.pmid: 23268517
references.citation: Clin Gastroenterol Hepatol. 2005 Oct;3(10 Suppl 2):S97-S101
references.pmid: 16234071
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1989 Nov 30;321(22):1494-500
references.pmid: 2509915
references.citation: J Viral Hepat. 2012 Jul;19(7):449-64
references.pmid: 22676357
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2010 Feb;138(2):447-62
references.pmid: 20006612
references.citation: Hepatology. 2011 Oct;54(4):1135-48
references.pmid: 21674561
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2009 Apr 30;360(18):1827-38
references.pmid: 19403902
references.citation: QJM. 2014 Jan;107(1):17-9
references.pmid: 24065837
references.citation: Rev Med Virol. 2012 May;22(3):156-65
references.pmid: 22121001
references.citation: Lancet. 2000 Mar 11;355(9207):887-91
references.pmid: 10752705
references.citation: Hepatology. 2000 Mar;31(3):777-82
references.pmid: 10706572
references.citation: J Virol. 2008 Nov;82(21):10896-905
references.pmid: 18753204
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1992 Dec 31;327(27):1899-905
references.pmid: 1280771
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2007 Apr;79(4):374-82
references.pmid: 17311333
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2011 Sep 15;204(6):825-31
references.pmid: 21849279
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2012 Mar;67(3):523-9
references.pmid: 22194301
references.citation: Int J Infect Dis. 2010 Sep;14 Suppl 3:e113-6
references.pmid: 20362479
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2011 Oct;53(8):780-6
references.pmid: 21921221
references.citation: Hepatology. 2008 Apr;47(4):1128-35
references.pmid: 18318441
references.citation: J Virol. 2006 Nov;80(22):11082-93
references.pmid: 16956932
references.citation: Oncology. 2002;62 Suppl 1:8-17
references.pmid: 11868791
references.citation: Gut. 2006 Sep;55(9):1350-9
references.pmid: 16905701
references.citation: Am J Med. 1999 Dec 27;107(6B):2S-9S
references.pmid: 10653448
references.citation: Semin Liver Dis. 2005 Feb;25(1):7-17
references.pmid: 15731994
references.citation: PLoS One. 2012;7(10):e47492
references.pmid: 23091628
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2011 Jun 23;364(25):2417-28
references.pmid: 21696308
references.citation: Clin Liver Dis. 2003 Feb;7(1):127-37
references.pmid: 12691462
references.citation: Nat Med. 2013 Jul;19(7):869-78
references.pmid: 23836237
references.citation: Gene. 2013 Jan 25;513(2):292-6
references.pmid: 23142377
references.citation: Lancet. 1975 Jul 12;2(7924):64-5
references.pmid: 49656
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2007 Apr;45(4):1140-5
references.pmid: 17251399
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2000 Jul;81(Pt 7):1631-48
references.pmid: 10859368
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2012 Apr;142(4):978-88
references.pmid: 22248663
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2010 Apr;48(4):1161-8
references.pmid: 20107102
references.citation: Clin Chem Lab Med. 2007;45(2):167-70
references.pmid: 17311502
references.citation: World J Gastroenterol. 2009 Dec 7;15(45):5647-53
references.pmid: 19960560
references.citation: Euro Surveill. 2008 May 22;13(21):
references.pmid: 18761966
references.citation: World J Gastroenterol. 2011 Dec 21;17(47):5184-90
references.pmid: 22215943
references.citation: Hepatology. 2005 Oct;42(4):962-73
references.pmid: 16149085
references.citation: Ann Hepatol. 2012 Nov-Dec;11(6):827-37
references.pmid: 23109445
references.citation: Curr Opin HIV AIDS. 2011 Nov;6(6):491-500
references.pmid: 21918436
references.citation: Hepatology. 2009 Apr;49(4):1335-74
references.pmid: 19330875
references.citation: Hepatology. 2009 Dec;50(6):1709-18
references.pmid: 19787809
references.citation: Hepatology. 2013 Apr;57(4):1303-13
references.pmid: 23150224
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2011 Mar 31;364(13):1195-206
references.pmid: 21449783
references.citation: Gut. 2010 Nov;59(11):1554-60
references.pmid: 20947889
references.citation: Nat Rev Genet. 2008 Apr;9(4):267-76
references.pmid: 18319742
references.citation: Hum Vaccin. 2009 Mar;5(3):151-7
references.pmid: 19246990
references.citation: Infect Genet Evol. 2011 Apr;11(3):543-56
references.pmid: 21292033
references.citation: Hepat Mon. 2012 Mar;12(3):196-204
references.pmid: 22550528
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2012 May;142(6):1314-1323.e1
references.pmid: 22537438
references.citation: Gut. 2008 Sep;57(9):1268-74
references.pmid: 18480169
references.citation: Liver Int. 2011 Jan;31 Suppl 1:3-12
references.pmid: 21205131
references.citation: Curr Hepat Rep. 2011 Jul 2;10(3):214-227
references.pmid: 22180724
references.citation: J Hepatol. 2005 Jan;42(1):47-53
references.pmid: 15629506
references.citation: Intervirology. 2011 Feb;54(2):61-5
references.pmid: 20829601
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Feb 14;103(7):2310-5
references.pmid: 16461899
references.citation: Curr Gene Ther. 2010 Aug;10(4):281-6
references.pmid: 20504275
references.citation: Semin Liver Dis. 1995 Feb;15(1):41-63
references.pmid: 7597443
references.citation: Sci Transl Med. 2011 Aug 3;3(94):94ra71
references.pmid: 21813755
references.citation: J Gastroenterol. 2010 Sep;45(9):903-10
references.pmid: 20635099
references.citation: Curr Gastroenterol Rep. 2013 Feb;15(2):309
references.pmid: 23314805
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2008 May;134(5):1385-95
references.pmid: 18471515
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2011 Sep;141(3):890-899.e1-4
references.pmid: 21699798
references.citation: Genes Immun. 2002 Sep;3(6):359-67
references.pmid: 12209363
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2010 Oct;139(4):1355-64
references.pmid: 20600021
references.citation: Int J Epidemiol. 2007 Aug;36(4):731-7
references.pmid: 17693458
references.citation: J Infect Dis. 2011 Oct 15;204(8):1186-90
references.pmid: 21917891
references.citation: Genes Immun. 2004 Jun;5(4):237-45
references.pmid: 15103322
references.citation: J Viral Hepat. 2009 Jun;16(6):377-87
references.pmid: 19472445
references.citation: Gut. 2011 Feb;60(2):268-78
references.pmid: 20876777
references.citation: J Clin Invest. 2009 Jul;119(7):1745-54
references.pmid: 19587449
references.citation: Nature. 2009 Oct 8;461(7265):798-801
references.pmid: 19759533
references.citation: World J Gastroenterol. 2012 Feb 28;18(8):800-5
references.pmid: 22371640
references.citation: Hepatol Res. 2010 Nov;40(11):1063-71
references.pmid: 20977565
references.citation: Liver Int. 2011 Sep;31(8):1090-101
references.pmid: 21745274
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009 Dec 24;4(12):e8467
references.pmid: 20041146
references.citation: Semin Liver Dis. 2007 Feb;27(1):13-27
references.pmid: 17295174
references.citation: Curr Opin Immunol. 2011 Jun;23(3):377-82
references.pmid: 21514130
references.citation: Hepatology. 2011 Nov;54(5):1570-9
references.pmid: 21793032
references.citation: Crit Rev Microbiol. 2010 May;36(2):91-133
references.pmid: 20345213
references.citation: Virology. 1991 Feb;180(2):842-8
references.pmid: 1846505
references.citation: Adv Virus Res. 2008;71:51-133
references.pmid: 18585527
references.citation: Scand J Gastroenterol. 2003 Aug;38(8):864-70
references.pmid: 12940441
references.citation: Nat Med. 2005 Jul;11(7):791-6
references.pmid: 15951748
references.citation: Nature. 2013 Sep 12;501(7466):237-41
references.pmid: 23903655
references.citation: Clin Liver Dis. 2013 Feb;17(1):27-45
references.pmid: 23177281
references.citation: Hepatology. 2002 Jul;36(1):211-8
references.pmid: 12085367
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2002 Oct;68(2):229-33
references.pmid: 12210412
references.citation: J Virol. 2006 Sep;80(18):9226-35
references.pmid: 16940534
references.citation: Liver Int. 2009 Jan;29 Suppl 1:74-81
references.pmid: 19207969
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Aug 18;436(7053):939-45
references.pmid: 16107833
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2010 Jun;48(6):2253-6
references.pmid: 20351215
references.citation: Transfusion. 2004 Oct;44(10):1433-40
references.pmid: 15383015
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2013 Jul;57(2):221-9
references.pmid: 23575197
references.citation: Curr Opin Virol. 2011 Dec;1(6):599-606
references.pmid: 22440917
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2013 Nov;58(3):522-7
references.pmid: 24095028
references.citation: AIDS. 2011 Jul 17;25(11):1415-20
references.pmid: 21572301
references.citation: MMWR Morb Mortal Wkly Rep. 2012 Jul 27;61(29):545-9
references.pmid: 22832935
references.citation: Gastroenterology. 2010 Apr;138(4):1338-45, 1345.e1-7
references.pmid: 20060832
references.citation: Lancet. 1989 Aug 5;2(8658):297-8
references.pmid: 2569103
references.citation: J Virol. 2012 Nov;86(21):11558-66
references.pmid: 22896607
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2008 Jun;42(2):156-9
references.pmid: 18353714
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2011 Mar 31;364(13):1207-17
references.pmid: 21449784
references.citation: Curr Opin Microbiol. 2006 Aug;9(4):416-22
references.pmid: 16814596
references.citation: Nat Med. 2013 Jul;19(7):837-49
references.pmid: 23836234
references.citation: PLoS One. 2009 Sep 28;4(9):e7193
references.pmid: 19784363
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1994 Aug 2;91(16):7792-6
references.pmid: 7519785
references.citation: J Clin Pharmacol. 2004 Jan;44(1):20-9
references.pmid: 14681338
references.citation: Hepatology. 2013 Apr;57(4):1333-42
references.pmid: 23172780
references.citation: Hepatology. 2010 Oct;52(4):1216-24
references.pmid: 20803561
references.citation: J Hepatol. 2011 Aug;55(2):245-64
references.pmid: 21371579
references.citation: Nat Genet. 2009 Oct;41(10):1105-9
references.pmid: 19749757
references.citation: Liver Int. 2009 Jan;29 Suppl 1:82-8
references.pmid: 19207970
references.citation: J Clin Virol. 2013 Nov;58(3):535-40
references.pmid: 24041472
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2010 Nov;48(11):3910-7
references.pmid: 20844214
references.citation: Science. 1998 Oct 2;282(5386):103-7
references.pmid: 9756471
references.citation: Clin Infect Dis. 2012 Jul;55 Suppl 1:S43-8
references.pmid: 22715213
references.citation: J Virol. 2010 Oct;84(19):10159-68
references.pmid: 20668082
references.citation: Hepatology. 2007 Sep;46(3):631-9
references.pmid: 17680654
references.citation: Hepatology. 2012 Jun;55(6):1700-10
references.pmid: 22234924
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2012 Feb;50(2):465-8
references.pmid: 22162563
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2004 Aug 19;351(8):751-9
references.pmid: 15317888
references.citation: Science. 1989 Apr 21;244(4902):359-62
references.pmid: 2523562
references.citation: World J Gastroenterol. 2007 May 7;13(17):2436-41
references.pmid: 17552026
references.citation: J Virol. 2004 Jul;78(13):6995-7003
references.pmid: 15194776
references.citation: Vaccine. 2010 Aug 31;28(38):6367-73
references.pmid: 20619382
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2012 May;36(3):663-83
references.pmid: 22142141
references.citation: Science. 2000 Apr 14;288(5464):339-44
references.pmid: 10764648
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 May 27;100(11):6753-8
references.pmid: 12748380
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 May 5;106(18):7537-41
references.pmid: 19380744
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1999 Aug 19;341(8):556-62
references.pmid: 10451460
references.citation: Aliment Pharmacol Ther. 2011 Aug;34(3):286-96
references.pmid: 21623850
references.citation: Nature. 2005 Aug 18;436(7053):933-8
references.pmid: 16107832