title: Identifying psychophysiological indices of expert vs. novice performance in deadly force judgment and decision making.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To demonstrate that psychophysiology may have applications for objective assessment of expertise development in deadly force judgment and decision making (DFJDM).
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Modern training techniques focus on improving decision-making skills with participative assessment between trainees and subject matter experts primarily through subjective observation. OBJECTIVE metrics need to be developed. The current proof of concept study explored the potential for psychophysiological metrics in deadly force judgment contexts.
  
  
  METHODS
  Twenty-four participants (novice, expert) were recruited. All wore a wireless Electroencephalography (EEG) device to collect psychophysiological data during high-fidelity simulated deadly force judgment and decision-making simulations using a modified Glock firearm. Participants were exposed to 27 video scenarios, one-third of which would have justified use of deadly force. Pass/fail was determined by whether the participant used deadly force appropriately.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Experts had a significantly higher pass rate compared to novices (p < 0.05). Multiple metrics were shown to distinguish novices from experts. Hierarchical regression analyses indicate that psychophysiological variables are able to explain 72% of the variability in expert performance, but only 37% in novices. Discriminant function analysis (DFA) using psychophysiological metrics was able to discern between experts and novices with 72.6% accuracy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  While limited due to small sample size, the results suggest that psychophysiology may be developed for use as an objective measure of expertise in DFDJM. Specifically, discriminant function measures may have the potential to objectively identify expert skill acquisition.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Psychophysiological metrics may create a performance model with the potential to optimize simulator-based DFJDM training. These performance models could be used for trainee feedback, and/or by the instructor to assess performance objectively.
authors.affiliation: Advanced Brain Monitoring, Inc. Carlsbad, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Robin R
authors.initials: RR
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.affiliation: Advanced Brain Monitoring, Inc. Carlsbad, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Bradly T
authors.initials: BT
authors.lastname: Stone
authors.affiliation: Advanced Brain Monitoring, Inc. Carlsbad, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Carrie M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Miranda
authors.affiliation: Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Washington State University Spokane, WA, USA.
authors.forename: Bryan
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Vila
authors.affiliation: Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Washington State University Spokane, WA, USA.
authors.forename: Lois
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: James
authors.affiliation: Department of Criminal Justice and Criminology, Washington State University Spokane, WA, USA.
authors.forename: Stephen M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: James
authors.affiliation: Advanced Brain Monitoring, Inc. Carlsbad, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Roberto F
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: Rubio
authors.affiliation: Advanced Brain Monitoring, Inc. Carlsbad, CA, USA.
authors.forename: Chris
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Berka
keywords: ECG; EEG; HR deceleration; deadly force simulations; decision making
references.citation: Brain Res Brain Res Rev. 1999 Apr;29(2-3):169-95
references.pmid: 10209231
references.citation: Neuroreport. 2005 Feb 28;16(3):207-11
references.pmid: 15706221
references.citation: Int J Psychophysiol. 1990 Apr;8(3):297-308
references.pmid: 2338409
references.citation: Brain Topogr. 1993 Spring;5(3):241-51
references.pmid: 8507550
references.citation: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2004 Jan;36(1):118-29
references.pmid: 14707777
references.citation: Eur Heart J. 1996 Mar;17(3):354-81
references.pmid: 8737210
references.citation: Biol Psychol. 2011 May;87(2):241-50
references.pmid: 21419826
references.citation: J Physiol. 2008 Jan 1;586(1):131-9
references.pmid: 17947315
references.citation: Aviat Space Environ Med. 2007 May;78(5 Suppl):B153-64
references.pmid: 17547316
references.citation: J Sports Sci. 1998 Apr;16(3):235-42
references.pmid: 9596357
references.citation: Int J Psychophysiol. 2001 Jan;39(2-3):159-65
references.pmid: 11163895
references.citation: Psychophysiology. 1987 Sep;24(5):542-9
references.pmid: 3685234
references.citation: Int J Psychophysiol. 2001 May;41(1):19-29
references.pmid: 11239694
references.citation: Biol Psychol. 2000 Feb;52(1):71-83
references.pmid: 10686373
references.citation: Res Q Exerc Sport. 1990 Dec;61(4):351-9
references.pmid: 2132894
references.citation: IEEE Pulse. 2012 Jan;3(1):60-3
references.pmid: 22344955
references.citation: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 1993 Jan;25(1):116-26
references.pmid: 8423744
references.citation: Electroencephalogr Clin Neurophysiol. 1997 May;104(3):244-56
references.pmid: 9186239
references.citation: Biol Psychol. 2000 Jul;53(2-3):131-60
references.pmid: 10967230
references.citation: Aviat Space Environ Med. 2007 May;78(5 Suppl):B231-44
references.pmid: 17547324
references.citation: Int J Psychophysiol. 2011 Feb;79(2):175-83
references.pmid: 20955738
references.citation: Neuropsychologia. 2008 Apr;46(5):1463-7
references.pmid: 18280523
references.citation: Med Biol Eng Comput. 1980 Mar;18(2):125-32
references.pmid: 7392679