title: Overweight and Obesity before, during and after Pregnancy: Part 2: Evidence-based Risk Factors and Interventions.
abstract: Overweight and obesity have become a global health problem. Obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy have a serious impact on maternal, fetal and neonatal outcomes. Pre-conceptional obesity and excessive weight gain during pregnancy are associated with weight gain in women following childbirth leading to associated risks such as metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease and diabetes. Long-term risks for the offspring are an increased risk for early cardiovascular events, metabolic syndrome and decreased life expectancy as adults. German health care has not yet adequately responded to this development. There are no clinical guidelines for obesity before, during or after pregnancy, there are no concerted actions amongst midwives, obstetricians, health advisors, politicians and the media. Research projects on effective interventions are lacking although health care concepts would be urgently needed to reduce future metabolic and cardiovascular risks for women and children as well as to minimize the associated costs for the society.
authors.affiliation: Clara Angela Foundation, Witten and Berlin ; Phillips University Marburg, Centre for Mother and Child ; Department of Obstetrics, University Hospital Charité Berlin.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Arabin
authors.affiliation: Clara Angela Foundation, Witten and Berlin ; Department of Obstetrics, University Hospital Charité Berlin.
authors.forename: J H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Stupin
keywords: diabetes; metabolic syndrome; obesity during pregnancy; prevention
references.citation: Women Birth. 2014 Mar;27(1):64-7
references.pmid: 24295598
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 1990 Sep;76(3 Pt 1):339-42
references.pmid: 2199865
references.citation: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005 Oct 19;(4):CD003641
references.pmid: 16235331
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2008 Apr 3;358(14):1444-53
references.pmid: 18385496
references.citation: BMJ. 2004 Mar 20;328(7441):665
references.pmid: 15023829
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Apr;210(4):343.e1-343.e4
references.pmid: 24211483
references.citation: Br J Nutr. 2006 Dec;96(6):1095-104
references.pmid: 17181885
references.citation: Midwifery. 2013 Dec;29(12):1287-96
references.pmid: 23434033
references.citation: Paediatr Perinat Epidemiol. 2004 May;18(3):196-201
references.pmid: 15130159
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 1998 Jan;91(1):97-102
references.pmid: 9464729
references.citation: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2003;(4):CD000032
references.pmid: 14583907
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2002 Nov;100(5 Pt 1):959-64
references.pmid: 12423861
references.citation: J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2005 Mar;17(3):179-85
references.pmid: 16147820
references.citation: Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2010 Aug;110(2):167-73
references.pmid: 20641146
references.citation: Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2004 Sep;83(9):801-7
references.pmid: 15315590
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Apr;190(4):1091-7
references.pmid: 15118648
references.citation: Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2000 Jan;79(1):43-8
references.pmid: 10646815
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2001 Aug;185(2):349-54
references.pmid: 11518890
references.citation: BMC Public Health. 2013 Nov 13;13:1072
references.pmid: 24225016
references.citation: J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2016;29(4):619-23
references.pmid: 25731649
references.citation: Obes Res. 2002 Jun;10(6):551-4
references.pmid: 12055331
references.citation: BJOG. 2014 Jan;121(1):72-81; discussion 82
references.pmid: 24102880
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994 Feb;170(2):560-5
references.pmid: 8116713
references.citation: Nutr J. 2013 Jul 25;12:104
references.pmid: 23886115
references.citation: BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2007 Jul 04;7:9
references.pmid: 17608952
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Dec;193(6):1923-35
references.pmid: 16325593
references.citation: Lancet. 2005 Sep 24-30;366(9491):1059-62
references.pmid: 16182882
references.citation: J Womens Health (Larchmt). 2003 Dec;12(10):991-8
references.pmid: 14709187
references.citation: BJOG. 2005 Jun;112(6):768-72
references.pmid: 15924535
references.citation: Int J Gynaecol Obstet. 2005 Jul;90(1):10-5
references.pmid: 15913620
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2012 Jun;95(6):1432-7
references.pmid: 22552028
references.citation: Diabetes Care. 2002 Oct;25(10):1862-8
references.pmid: 12351492
references.citation: Lancet. 2011 Apr 16;377(9774):1331-40
references.pmid: 21496916
references.citation: Epidemiology. 2005 Jan;16(1):87-92
references.pmid: 15613950
references.citation: JAMA. 1996 Apr 10;275(14):1089-92
references.pmid: 8601927
references.citation: Int J Obes (Lond). 2006 Mar;30(3):492-9
references.pmid: 16331301
references.citation: BMJ Open. 2013 Oct 30;3(10):e003834
references.pmid: 24176797
references.citation: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2005 Apr 18;(2):CD001688
references.pmid: 15846621
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 2000 Feb 17;342(7):449-53
references.pmid: 10675424
references.citation: JAMA. 2014 Jan 1;311(1):23-4
references.pmid: 24381963
references.citation: Eur J Endocrinol. 2013 Oct 01;169(5):605-11
references.pmid: 23959786
references.citation: Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2007;86(9):1051-7
references.pmid: 17712644
references.citation: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2001 Aug;25(8):1175-82
references.pmid: 11477502
references.citation: BMJ. 2013 Aug 13;347:f4539
references.pmid: 23943697
references.citation: Curr Opin Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Dec;21(6):521-6
references.pmid: 19809317
references.citation: Lancet. 2009 May 23;373(9677):1773-9
references.pmid: 19465232
references.citation: Pediatrics. 2006 Dec;118(6):e1644-9
references.pmid: 17142494
references.citation: J Reprod Med. 2000 Jan;45(1):17-22
references.pmid: 10664942
references.citation: J Matern Fetal Neonatal Med. 2014 Mar;27(4):355-9
references.pmid: 23796168
references.citation: Ultrasound Obstet Gynecol. 2009 Mar;33(3):326-30
references.pmid: 19224527
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2009 May;113(5):1001-1007
references.pmid: 19384114
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2003 Jul;189(1):239-44
references.pmid: 12861169
references.citation: Midwifery. 2013 Apr;29(4):338-43
references.pmid: 23146141
references.citation: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2002 Nov;26(11):1494-502
references.pmid: 12439652
references.citation: Anaesthesia. 2000 Jul;55(7):690-4
references.pmid: 10919428
references.citation: JAMA. 1996 Apr 10;275(14):1093-6
references.pmid: 8601928
references.citation: J Matern Fetal Med. 2000 Jul-Aug;9(4):238-41
references.pmid: 11048836
references.citation: Anesthesiology. 1993 Dec;79(6):1210-8
references.pmid: 8267196
references.citation: Fertil Steril. 2010 Jun;94(1):290-5
references.pmid: 19439294
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2014 Jan;123(1):104-112
references.pmid: 24463670
references.citation: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 1998 Nov;22(11):1103-9
references.pmid: 9822949
references.citation: Lancet. 2011 May 14;377(9778):1703-17
references.pmid: 21496907
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 1991 Sep;78(3 Pt 1):340-3
references.pmid: 1876361
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Oct;106(4):741-6
references.pmid: 16199630
references.citation: JAMA. 2012 Feb 1;307(5):491-7
references.pmid: 22253363
references.citation: BMC Res Notes. 2013 Jul 18;6:278
references.pmid: 23866845
references.citation: Lancet. 1982 Jul 3;2(8288):33-6
references.pmid: 6123760
references.citation: Clin Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Dec;47(4):898-913; discussion 980-1
references.pmid: 15596944
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 1994 Feb;170(2):541-8
references.pmid: 8116710
references.citation: J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2003 Jun;25(6):516-29
references.pmid: 12806453
references.citation: Pediatrics. 2008 May;121(5):e1319-24
references.pmid: 18450874
references.citation: Women Birth. 2014 Jun;27(2):138-44
references.pmid: 24295597
references.citation: Acta Obstet Gynecol Scand. 2013 Sep;92(9):1111-4
references.pmid: 23679221
references.citation: Lancet. 2009 Nov 7;374(9701):1606-16
references.pmid: 19853906
references.citation: Neonatology. 2014;105(3):172-4
references.pmid: 24434868
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol Surv. 2000 Apr;55(4):229-39
references.pmid: 10758619
references.citation: Cochrane Database Syst Rev. 2013 Jul 23;(7):CD005627
references.pmid: 23881656
references.citation: Fertil Steril. 2003 May;79(5):1136-40
references.pmid: 12738508
references.citation: BJOG. 2006 Nov;113(11):1296-302
references.pmid: 17004979
references.citation: J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2002 Nov;24(11):894-912
references.pmid: 12417905
references.citation: Am J Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Sep;191(3):954-7
references.pmid: 15467571
references.citation: Obes Surg. 2001 Jun;11(3):303-6
references.pmid: 11433905
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2013 Jan;121(1):213-7
references.pmid: 23262963
references.citation: Pediatrics. 2004 May;113(5):e465-71
references.pmid: 15121990
references.citation: Matern Child Health J. 2005 Sep;9(3):237-44
references.pmid: 16078011
references.citation: Diabetes Care. 2011 Dec;34(12):2502-7
references.pmid: 21972411
references.citation: Int J Public Health. 2009 Sep;54 Suppl 2:167-79
references.pmid: 19618111
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2004 Feb;103(2):219-24
references.pmid: 14754687
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Dec 12;8(12):e82247
references.pmid: 24349234
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2010 Nov;116(5):1191-5
references.pmid: 20966705
references.citation: Eur J Clin Nutr. 2001 Nov;55(11):973-9
references.pmid: 11641746
references.citation: World Health Organ Tech Rep Ser. 2000;894:i-xii, 1-253
references.pmid: 11234459
references.citation: J Obstet Gynaecol Can. 2013 Jul;35(7):606-611
references.pmid: 23876637
references.citation: Can J Anaesth. 2003 Dec;50(10):1047-50
references.pmid: 14656785
references.citation: J Thromb Haemost. 2008 Jun;6(6):905-12
references.pmid: 18363820
references.citation: Obstet Gynecol. 2005 Dec;106(6):1357-64
references.pmid: 16319263
references.citation: BMC Pregnancy Childbirth. 2013 May 21;13:117
references.pmid: 23692981