title: Artificial selection for structural color on butterfly wings and comparison with natural evolution.
abstract: Brilliant animal colors often are produced from light interacting with intricate nano-morphologies present in biological materials such as butterfly wing scales. Surveys across widely divergent butterfly species have identified multiple mechanisms of structural color production; however, little is known about how these colors evolved. Here, we examine how closely related species and populations of Bicyclus butterflies have evolved violet structural color from brown-pigmented ancestors with UV structural color. We used artificial selection on a laboratory model butterfly, B. anynana, to evolve violet scales from UV brown scales and compared the mechanism of violet color production with that of two other Bicyclus species, Bicyclus sambulos and Bicyclus medontias, which have evolved violet/blue scales independently via natural selection. The UV reflectance peak of B. anynana brown scales shifted to violet over six generations of artificial selection (i.e., in less than 1 y) as the result of an increase in the thickness of the lower lamina in ground scales. Similar scale structures and the same mechanism for producing violet/blue structural colors were found in the other Bicyclus species. This work shows that populations harbor large amounts of standing genetic variation that can lead to rapid evolution of scales' structural color via slight modifications to the scales' physical dimensions.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511;
authors.forename: Bethany R
authors.initials: BR
authors.lastname: Wasik
authors.affiliation: Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511;
authors.forename: Seng Fatt
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Liew
authors.affiliation: Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511;
authors.forename: David A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Lilien
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511;
authors.forename: April J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Dinwiddie
authors.affiliation: Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511;Department of Nano and Electronic Physics, Kookmin University, Seongbuk-Gu, Seoul 136-702, South Korea;
authors.forename: Heeso
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Noh
authors.affiliation: Department of Applied Physics, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511; hui.cao@yale.edu antonia.monteiro@nus.edu.sg.
authors.forename: Hui
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Cao
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolutionary Biology, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06511;Department of Biological Sciences, National University of Singapore, Singapore 117543; andYale-NUS College, Singapore138614 hui.cao@yale.edu antonia.monteiro@nus.edu.sg.
authors.forename: Antónia
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Monteiro
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002080:Butterflies / Q000235:genetics*; D003116:Color; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D012641:Selection, Genetic
keywords: constructive interference; parallel evolution; photonics; thin film
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