title: Image analysis of skin color heterogeneity focusing on skin chromophores and the age-related changes in facial skin.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Heterogeneity with respect to skin color tone is one of the key factors in visual perception of facial attractiveness and age. However, there have been few studies on quantitative analyses of the color heterogeneity of facial skin. The purpose of this study was to develop image evaluation methods for skin color heterogeneity focusing on skin chromophores and then characterize ethnic differences and age-related changes.
  
  
  METHODS
  A facial imaging system equipped with an illumination unit and a high-resolution digital camera was used to develop image evaluation methods for skin color heterogeneity. First, melanin and/or hemoglobin images were obtained using pigment-specific image-processing techniques, which involved conversion from Commission Internationale de l'Eclairage XYZ color values to melanin and/or hemoglobin indexes as measures of their contents. Second, a spatial frequency analysis with threshold settings was applied to the individual images. Cheek skin images of 194 healthy Asian and Caucasian female subjects were acquired using the imaging system. Applying this methodology, the skin color heterogeneity of Asian and Caucasian faces was characterized.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The proposed pigment-specific image-processing techniques allowed visual discrimination of skin redness from skin pigmentation. In the heterogeneity analyses of cheek skin color, age-related changes in melanin were clearly detected in Asian and Caucasian skin. Furthermore, it was found that the heterogeneity indexes of hemoglobin were significantly higher in Caucasian skin than in Asian skin.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We have developed evaluation methods for skin color heterogeneity by image analyses based on the major chromophores, melanin and hemoglobin, with special reference to their size. This methodology focusing on skin color heterogeneity should be useful for better understanding of aging and ethnic differences.
authors.affiliation: Shiseido Research Center, Yokohama, Japan.
authors.forename: Kumiko
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kikuchi
authors.forename: Yuji
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Masuda
authors.forename: Toyonobu
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Yamashita
authors.forename: Eriko
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Kawai
authors.forename: Tetsuji
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Hirao
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D003116:Color; D003124:Colorimetry / Q000295:instrumentation* / Q000379:methods*; D046169:Dermoscopy / Q000379:methods*; D004867:Equipment Design; D019544:Equipment Failure Analysis; D005145:Face / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007090:Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D015595:Skin Aging / Q000473:pathology / Q000502:physiology*; D012880:Skin Pigmentation / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: ethnic difference; hemoglobin; image analysis; melanin; skin color heterogeneity