title: Neurocognitive predictors of substance use disorders and nicotine dependence in ADHD probands, their unaffected siblings, and controls: a 4-year prospective follow-up.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Attention-Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder (ADHD) is a risk factor for substance use disorders (SUDs) and nicotine dependence (ND). Neurocognitive deficits may predict the increased risk of developing SUDs and nicotine dependence.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study comprised three groups derived from the Dutch part of the International Multicenter ADHD Genetics (IMAGE) study: ADHD probands (n = 294), unaffected siblings (n = 161), and controls (n = 214). At baseline (age = 12.2), a range of neurocognitive functions was assessed including executive functions (inhibition, working memory, timing), measures of motor functioning (motor timing and tracking) and IQ. After a mean follow-up of 4.2 years, SUDs and ND were assessed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  None of the neurocognitive functions predicted later SUDs or ND in ADHD probands, even after controlling for medication use and conduct disorder. Slower response inhibition predicted later nicotine dependence in unaffected siblings (OR = 2.06, 95% CI = 1.22-3.48), and lower IQ predicted increased risk for SUDs in controls (OR = 1.96, 95% CI = 1.12-3.44).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Cold executive functions, motor functioning, and IQ did not predict the elevated risk of SUDs and ND in ADHD. Future studies should target 'hot' executive functions such as reward processing as risk factors for SUDs or ND.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Neuropsychology, VU University Amsterdam, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Centre for Neuroscience, Department of Cognitive Neuroscience, Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behavior, Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Annabeth P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Groenman
authors.forename: Jaap
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Oosterlaan
authors.forename: Corina U
authors.initials: CU
authors.lastname: Greven
authors.forename: Pieter Jelle
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Vuijk
authors.forename: Nanda
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Rommelse
authors.forename: Barbara
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Franke
authors.forename: Catharina A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Hartman
authors.forename: Pieter J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Hoekstra
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sergeant
authors.forename: Stephen V
authors.initials: SV
authors.lastname: Faraone
authors.forename: Jan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Buitelaar
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D002648:Child; D015897:Comorbidity; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009426:Netherlands; D011379:Prognosis; D012307:Risk Factors; D035781:Siblings; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology; D014029:Tobacco Use Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology
keywords: Attention-deficit/Hyperactivity disorder; neurocognitive functions; nicotine dependence; substance use disorder