title: The timing and spatiotemporal patterning of Neanderthal disappearance.
abstract: The timing of Neanderthal disappearance and the extent to which they overlapped with the earliest incoming anatomically modern humans (AMHs) in Eurasia are key questions in palaeoanthropology. Determining the spatiotemporal relationship between the two populations is crucial if we are to understand the processes, timing and reasons leading to the disappearance of Neanderthals and the likelihood of cultural and genetic exchange. Serious technical challenges, however, have hindered reliable dating of the period, as the radiocarbon method reaches its limit at ∼50,000 years ago. Here we apply improved accelerator mass spectrometry (14)C techniques to construct robust chronologies from 40 key Mousterian and Neanderthal archaeological sites, ranging from Russia to Spain. Bayesian age modelling was used to generate probability distribution functions to determine the latest appearance date. We show that the Mousterian ended by 41,030-39,260 calibrated years bp (at 95.4% probability) across Europe. We also demonstrate that succeeding 'transitional' archaeological industries, one of which has been linked with Neanderthals (Châtelperronian), end at a similar time. Our data indicate that the disappearance of Neanderthals occurred at different times in different regions. Comparing the data with results obtained from the earliest dated AMH sites in Europe, associated with the Uluzzian technocomplex, allows us to quantify the temporal overlap between the two human groups. The results reveal a significant overlap of 2,600-5,400 years (at 95.4% probability). This has important implications for models seeking to explain the cultural, technological and biological elements involved in the replacement of Neanderthals by AMHs. A mosaic of populations in Europe during the Middle to Upper Palaeolithic transition suggests that there was ample time for the transmission of cultural and symbolic behaviours, as well as possible genetic exchanges, between the two groups.
authors.affiliation: Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology &the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK.
authors.forename: Tom
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Higham
authors.affiliation: Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology &the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK.
authors.forename: Katerina
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Douka
authors.affiliation: 1] Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology &the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK [2] Research School for Earth Sciences, Australian National University, Canberra 0200, Australia.
authors.forename: Rachel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Wood
authors.affiliation: Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology &the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK.
authors.forename: Christopher Bronk
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Ramsey
authors.affiliation: Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology &the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK.
authors.forename: Fiona
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Brock
authors.affiliation: School of Geography, Archaeology and Palaeoecology (GAP), Queen's University Belfast, Belfast BT7 1NN, UK.
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Basell
authors.affiliation: School of Languages, Literatures and Cultures, College Park, 4102 Jiménez Hall, University of Maryland, Maryland 20742-4821, USA.
authors.forename: Marta
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Camps
authors.affiliation: Research Team on Prehistory (IT-622-13), IKERBASQUE, University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Tomás y Valiente Street, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.
authors.forename: Alvaro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Arrizabalaga
authors.affiliation: Departimento Prehistoria y Arqueología, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, Campus Cantoblanco, 28049 Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: Javier
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Baena
authors.affiliation: Fundación Instituto de Investigación de Prehistoria y Evolución Humana, Plaza del Coso 1, 14900 Lucena, Córdoba, Spain.
authors.forename: Cecillio
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Barroso-Ruíz
authors.affiliation: URS, 525 Vine Street, Suite 1800, Cincinnati, Ohio 45202, USA.
authors.forename: Christopher
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Bergman
authors.affiliation: 8 rue des Sapins, 67100 Strasbourg, France.
authors.forename: Coralie
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Boitard
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche, della Terra e dell'Ambiente, U.R. Preistoria e Antropologia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via Laterina 8, 53100 Siena, Italy.
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Boscato
authors.affiliation: Département de Préhistoire, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, 75013 París, France.
authors.forename: Miguel
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authors.lastname: Caparrós
authors.affiliation: 1] Abt. Ältere Urgeschichte und Quartärökologie, Universität Tübingen, Schloss Hohentübingen, 72070 Tübingen, Germany [2] Tübingen Senckenberg Center for Human Evolution and Paleoecology, Schloss Hohentübingen, 72070 Tübingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Nicholas J
authors.initials: NJ
authors.lastname: Conard
authors.affiliation: Service public de Wallonie, DGO4, Service de l'Archéologie, rue des Martyrs, 22, B-6700 Arlon, Belgium.
authors.forename: Christelle
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Draily
authors.affiliation: Laboratoire d'Éco-antropologie et Ethnobiologie, Musée de l'Homme, 17 place du Trocadéro, 75116 Paris, France.
authors.forename: Alain
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Froment
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Prehistoria, Arqueología, Antropología e Historia Antigua, Universidad de La Laguna, Campus de Guajara, 38071 Tenerife, Spain.
authors.forename: Bertila
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Galván
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche, della Terra e dell'Ambiente, U.R. Preistoria e Antropologia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via Laterina 8, 53100 Siena, Italy.
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Gambassini
authors.affiliation: 1] Monrepos Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution, Schloss Monrepos, D-56567 Neuwied, Germany [2] The Cantabria International Institute for Prehistoric Research (IIIPC), University of Cantabria, Avda. Los Castros, s/n. 39005 Santander, Spain.
authors.forename: Alejandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Garcia-Moreno
authors.affiliation: Laboratorio di Preistoria 'B. Bagolini', Dipartimento di Lettere e Filosofia, Università degli Studi di Trento, via Tommaso Gar, 14 I-38122 Trento, Italy.
authors.forename: Stefano
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Grimaldi
authors.affiliation: Institut Royal des Sciences Naturelles de Belgique, rue Vautier 29, B-1000 Brussels, Belgium.
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Haesaerts
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of Massachusetts, 103 Machmer Hall, Amherst, Massachusetts 01003, USA.
authors.forename: Brigitte
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Holt
authors.affiliation: Research Team on Prehistory (IT-622-13), IKERBASQUE, University of the Basque Country (UPV-EHU), Tomás y Valiente Street, 01006 Vitoria-Gasteiz, Spain.
authors.forename: Maria-Jose
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Iriarte-Chiapusso
authors.affiliation: School of Anthropology, Emil W. Haury Building, University of Arizona, Tucson, Arizona 85721-0030, USA.
authors.forename: Arthur
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Jelinek
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, UNED. Paseo Senda del Rey 7, 20840, Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: Jesús F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Jordá Pardo
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, UNED. Paseo Senda del Rey 7, 20840, Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: José-Manuel
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Maíllo-Fernández
authors.affiliation: 1] Oxford Radiocarbon Accelerator Unit, Research Laboratory for Archaeology &the History of Art, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QY, UK [2] The Kimmel Center for Archaeological Science, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot 76100, Israel.
authors.forename: Anat
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Marom
authors.affiliation: rea de Prehistòria, Universitat de Girona, pl. Ferrater Mora 1, 17071 Girona, Spain.
authors.forename: Julià
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Maroto
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Prehistoria y Arqueología, UNED. Paseo Senda del Rey 7, 20840, Madrid, Spain.
authors.forename: Mario
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authors.lastname: Menéndez
authors.affiliation: CNRS, UMR 5608, TRACES, Toulouse Jean Jaurès University, Maison de la Recherche, 5 Allées Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse, Cedex 9, France.
authors.forename: Laure
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Metz
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, Trent University, Life and Health Sciences Building Block C, 2140 East Bank Drive, Peterborough, Ontario K9J 7B8, Canada.
authors.forename: Eugène
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Morin
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche, della Terra e dell'Ambiente, U.R. Preistoria e Antropologia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via Laterina 8, 53100 Siena, Italy.
authors.forename: Adriana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Moroni
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Antichità, Filosofia e Storia, Università di Genova, Via Balbi 2, Genova I-16126, Italy.
authors.forename: Fabio
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Negrino
authors.affiliation: Ephoreia of Paleoanthropology of Southern Greece, Ardittou 34B, Athens 11636, Greece.
authors.forename: Eleni
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Panagopoulou
authors.affiliation: Università di Ferrara, Dipartimento di Studi Umanistici, Sezione di Scienze Preistoriche e Antropologiche, Corso Ercole I d'Este 32, I-44100 Ferrara, Italy.
authors.forename: Marco
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authors.lastname: Peresani
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authors.forename: Stéphane
authors.initials: S
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authors.affiliation: Departamento de Historia, Universidad de Oviedo, c/Teniente Alfonso Martínez, s/n, 33011 Oviedo, Spain.
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authors.lastname: de la Rasilla
authors.affiliation: Département d'Anthropologie, Université de Montréal, C. P. 6128, Succursale Centre-ville, Montréal, Quebec H3T 1N8, Canada.
authors.forename: Julien
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authors.lastname: Riel-Salvatore
authors.affiliation: Dipartimento di Scienze Fisiche, della Terra e dell'Ambiente, U.R. Preistoria e Antropologia, Università degli Studi di Siena, Via Laterina 8, 53100 Siena, Italy.
authors.forename: Annamaria
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authors.affiliation: Departamento de Historia, Universidad de Oviedo, c/Teniente Alfonso Martínez, s/n, 33011 Oviedo, Spain.
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authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Santamaria
authors.affiliation: Service of Scientific Heritage, Royal Belgian Institute of Natural Sciences, 1000 Brussels, Belgium.
authors.forename: Patrick
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authors.lastname: Semal
authors.affiliation: CNRS, UMR 5608, TRACES, Toulouse Jean Jaurès University, Maison de la Recherche, 5 Allées Antonio Machado, 31058 Toulouse, Cedex 9, France.
authors.forename: Ludovic
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authors.affiliation: rea de Prehistòria, Universitat de Girona, pl. Ferrater Mora 1, 17071 Girona, Spain.
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authors.affiliation: rea de Prehistòria, Universitat de Girona, pl. Ferrater Mora 1, 17071 Girona, Spain.
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authors.affiliation: Monrepos Archaeological Research Centre and Museum for Human Behavioural Evolution, Schloss Monrepos, D-56567 Neuwied, Germany.
authors.forename: Aritza
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authors.lastname: Villaluenga
authors.affiliation: UCD Earth Institute and School of Archaeology, University College Dublin, Belfield, Dublin 4, Ireland.
authors.forename: Ron
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authors.affiliation: 1] Department of Prehistory and Europe, Franks House, The British Museum, London N1 5QJ, UK [2] The Natural History Museum, Cromwell Road, London SW7 5BD, UK [3].
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mesh_terms: D000069:Acculturation / Q000266:history*; D000818:Animals; D001499:Bayes Theorem; D053476:Extinction, Biological; D005843:Geography; D049690:History, Ancient; D006801:Humans; D013058:Mass Spectrometry; D059125:Neanderthals / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology; D055110:Radiometric Dating; D062211:Spatio-Temporal Analysis; D013997:Time Factors; D053001:Tool Use Behavior; D035501:Uncertainty