title: Prevalence of and risk factors for coccidiosis in kiwi between 1977 and 2011.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To identify risk factors associated with coccidiosis in kiwi (Apteryx spp.) using a retrospective analysis of historical data from kiwi examined post-mortem, and to determine the prevalence of coccidial oocysts in the droppings of wild and captive kiwi.
  
  
  METHODS
  Necropsy reports were examined from kiwi submitted to the National Wildlife Mortality Database of New Zealand (Huia) between February 1977 and May 2011. All cases that reported histological examination of one or more hepatic, intestinal or renal tissues were included in the study (n=372). Data collated for analysis included the presence or absence of coccidiosis in one or more tissues, age, host species, habitat, and season of submission. Fisher's exact test was used to determine the association between each independent variable and the prevalence of coccidiosis. Droppings opportunistically collected from wild and captive kiwi between January 2008 and June 2010 were also examined for the presence of coccidial oocysts.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Coccidiosis was evident in 47/372 (12.6%) kiwi examined post-mortem and was considered the primary cause of death in 12/47 (26%) infected cases. Examination of 412 droppings from wild and captive kiwi collected over a 29-month period revealed that 98 (23.8%) samples contained coccidia at the time of sampling. Enteric (n=27) coccidiosis was the most common form diagnosed using histology, followed by renal (n=19) and hepatic (n=11), with splenic (n=2) and pulmonary (n=1) infections infrequently seen. Many kiwi demonstrated infections in multiple tissues. The prevalence of coccidiosis was greater in juvenile kiwi (36/148, 24.3%) than adults (8/133, 6.0%) or chicks (2/83, 2.4%) (p<0.001), although there was no difference in mortality between age groups. Season of year was also associated with overall prevalence (p=0.05), with most cases being diagnosed in the autumn and winter. Coccidiosis was histologically evident in four of five species of kiwi examined, and in all host species upon analysis of droppings. Host species or habitat (captive vs. wild) did not influence the prevalence of disease detected histologically.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Age and season were the only factors that influenced the prevalence of coccidiosis in kiwi in this study. Coccidiosis was present in all species of kiwi, and this is the first report of coccidiosis in rowi (Apteryx rowi).
authors.affiliation: a Wildbase, Institute of Veterinary, Animal and Biomedical Sciences , Massey University , Palmerston North , New Zealand 4410.
authors.forename: K J
authors.initials: KJ
authors.lastname: Morgan
authors.forename: I
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Castro
authors.forename: N
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Lopez-Villalobos
authors.forename: W E
authors.initials: WE
authors.lastname: Pomroy
authors.forename: M R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Alley
authors.forename: B D
authors.initials: BD
authors.lastname: Gartrell
authors.forename: S
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Hunter
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Howe
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001715:Bird Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000266:history / Q000469:parasitology*; D003048:Coccidiosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000266:history / Q000662:veterinary*; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D009520:New Zealand / Q000453:epidemiology; D046108:Palaeognathae; D015995:Prevalence; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D013997:Time Factors
keywords: Apteryx; Coccidia; coccidiosis; hepatic; intestinal; kiwi; renal