title: A clinical, diagnostic, and ecologic perspective on human anaplasmosis in the Upper Midwest.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Human anaplasmosis caused by the bacterial pathogen Anaplasma phagocytophilum was first discovered in the Upper Midwest in 1990. Since that time the number of cases in the region has steadily increased, such that today, the pathogen rivals that of Lyme disease in causing human tick-borne-related illness.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  We provide an overview of the biology, clinical characteristics, and epidemiology of the disease in the Upper Midwest and discuss currently available diagnostic methods.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Rapid differentiation of anaplasmosis from other acute febrile illnesses and targeted treatment are important for preventing severe disease and potentially fatal outcomes in infected individuals. Beyond blood smear analysis and serology, the development of real-time polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assays for clinical use holds promise in improving our ability to make rapid diagnoses and to differentiate A phagocytophilum infections from those produced by closely related Ehrlichia pathogens, which are also present in the region.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Continuing expansion of the range of the black-legged tick (Ixodes scapuloris), the principal vector of the disease, into areas heavily populated or visited by humans in the region likely will result in this pathogen becoming an even greater burden on human health. Efforts are needed to better characterize the current geographic distribution of human Anaplasma and Ehrlichia cases to identify emerging foci and to better understand the enzootic cycles that maintain the pathogens in the region. Improved diagnostics may assist with such efforts.
authors.forename: Anna M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Schotthoefer
authors.forename: Jennifer K
authors.initials: JK
authors.lastname: Meece
authors.forename: Thomas R
authors.initials: TR
authors.lastname: Fritsche
mesh_terms: D000712:Anaplasmosis / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D000818:Animals; D016873:Ehrlichiosis / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology; D006801:Humans; D008910:Minnesota / Q000453:epidemiology; D011159:Population Surveillance; D015995:Prevalence; D014922:Wisconsin / Q000453:epidemiology