title: Attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder, iron deficiency, and obesity: is there a link?
abstract: The exact etiopathophysiology of attention-deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) remains elusive, likely because of its phenotypic heterogeneity. Given the involvement of iron in neurocognitive and behavioral functions, iron deficiency (ID) has been suggested as a possible etiopathophysiological factor in a subsample of individuals with ADHD. Most studies assessing ID in ADHD have focused on serum ferritin, a marker of peripheral iron status. Results from these studies are mixed, and the largest studies failed to find a significant association between ADHD and low serum ferritin levels. However, serum ferritin may be influenced by several conditions, including inflammatory status. Increasing evidence, especially from epidemiological studies, points to a significant association between ADHD and obesity. Interestingly, obesity is associated with a chronic inflammatory status, characterized by ID with normal-to-high serum ferritin levels. This article reviews the literature on iron status in ADHD and on the relationship between ADHD and obesity; discusses a possible link among ADHD, ID, and obesity; and proposes that comorbid obesity contributes to ID, via chronic inflammation, in a subsample of individuals with ADHD. Thus, the comorbidity between ADHD and obesity suggests moving beyond serum ferritin levels and assessing the molecular pathways of chronic inflammation that lead to ID in individuals with ADHD and obesity. In turns, this may pave the way for novel treatment strategies for cognitive and behavioral dysfunctions related to ID in ADHD.
authors.affiliation: Child Neuropsychiatry Unit, G.B. Rossi Hospital, Department of Life Science and Reproduction, Verona University, Verona, Italy; Phyllis Green and Randolph Cowen Institute for Pediatric Neuroscience, Child Study Center, New York University Langone Medical Center, New York, NY. samuel.cortese@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Samuele
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Cortese
authors.forename: Marco
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Angriman
mesh_terms: D018798:Anemia, Iron-Deficiency / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D001289:Attention Deficit Disorder with Hyperactivity / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D015897:Comorbidity; D004920:Erythropoiesis / Q000502:physiology; D005293:Ferritins / Q000097:blood*; D006801:Humans; D007249:Inflammation / Q000503:physiopathology; D009765:Obesity / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000503:physiopathology
chemical_list: D005293:Ferritins