title: Forward shift of feeding buzz components of dolphins and belugas during associative learning reveals a likely connection to reward expectation, pleasure and brain dopamine activation.
abstract: For many years, we heard sounds associated with reward from dolphins and belugas. We named these pulsed sounds victory squeals (VS), as they remind us of a child's squeal of delight. Here we put these sounds in context with natural and learned behavior. Like bats, echolocating cetaceans produce feeding buzzes as they approach and catch prey. Unlike bats, cetaceans continue their feeding buzzes after prey capture and the after portion is what we call the VS. Prior to training (or conditioning), the VS comes after the fish reward; with repeated trials it moves to before the reward. During training, we use a whistle or other sound to signal a correct response by the animal. This sound signal, named a secondary reinforcer (SR), leads to the primary reinforcer, fish. Trainers usually name their whistle or other SR a bridge, as it bridges the time gap between the correct response and reward delivery. During learning, the SR becomes associated with reward and the VS comes after the SR rather than after the fish. By following the SR, the VS confirms that the animal expects a reward. Results of early brain stimulation work suggest to us that SR stimulates brain dopamine release, which leads to the VS. Although there are no direct studies of dopamine release in cetaceans, we found that the timing of our VS is consistent with a response after dopamine release. We compared trained vocal responses to auditory stimuli with VS responses to SR sounds. Auditory stimuli that did not signal reward resulted in faster responses by a mean of 151 ms for dolphins and 250 ms for belugas. In laboratory animals, there is a 100 to 200 ms delay for dopamine release. VS delay in our animals is similar and consistent with vocalization after dopamine release. Our novel observation suggests that the dopamine reward system is active in cetacean brains.
authors.affiliation: National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2410 Shelter Island Boulevard, San Diego, CA 92106, USA US Navy Marine Mammal Program, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific, 53560 Hull Street, San Diego, CA 92152-5001, USA SRidgway@ucsd.edu.
authors.forename: S H
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Ridgway
authors.affiliation: National Marine Mammal Foundation, 2410 Shelter Island Boulevard, San Diego, CA 92106, USA US Navy Marine Mammal Program, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific, 53560 Hull Street, San Diego, CA 92152-5001, USA.
authors.forename: P W
authors.initials: PW
authors.lastname: Moore
authors.affiliation: US Navy Marine Mammal Program, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific, 53560 Hull Street, San Diego, CA 92152-5001, USA.
authors.forename: D A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Carder
authors.affiliation: US Navy Marine Mammal Program, Space and Naval Warfare Systems Center Pacific, 53560 Hull Street, San Diego, CA 92152-5001, USA.
authors.forename: T A
authors.initials: TA
authors.lastname: Romano
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001245:Association Learning; D050643:Beluga Whale / Q000502:physiology*; D050681:Bottle-Nosed Dolphin / Q000502:physiology*; D001921:Brain / Q000378:metabolism; D004298:Dopamine / Q000378:metabolism*; D005260:Female; D008297:Male; D012201:Reward; D014828:Vocalization, Animal
chemical_list: D004298:Dopamine
keywords: Animal signals; Auditory; Bottlenose dolphin; Food call; Reaction time; Victory squeal