title: Meta-cognitions in tourette syndrome, tic disorders, and body-focused repetitive disorder.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To explore if self-reported presence of thinking about tics or body-focused repetitive behaviours (BFRBs; gests) are direct triggers of tic or gest onset in 3 groups: Tourette syndrome (TS; n =18), persistent chronic tic disorders (TDs; n = 42), and a comparison group with BFRB (n = 36).
  
  
  METHODS
  The 3 groups completed a thinking about tics inventory, listing 22 items derived from clinician consensus that asked whether thoughts always, sometimes, or never exclusively triggered tic onset. Other questionnaires measured mood, perfectionism, impulsivity, premonitory urge, and self-rated tension. Sixty-three participants completed the inventory twice, and the inventory was completed pre- and post-behavioural intervention by a further 54.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The ranking of the thoughts reported as likely to trigger tics or gests was positively correlated across TD and BFRB groups. Exploratory principal components analysis of a reduced 12-item set (the thinking about tics inventory) in TS and TD groups revealed that such thoughts could be grouped into 3 separate subscales: thoughts about the interference of tics or gests, thoughts anticipating tics or gests, and thoughts about whether the person has permission to perform the tic or the gest. The 3 sets of subscales showed good and acceptable internal consistency and overall score showed good test-retest reliability, suggesting thoughts about tics or gests are robust and measurable. The subscales correlated with impulsivity, tic or behaviour severity, and ratings of frequency decreased post-behavioural treatment.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Thinking about tics or gests is reported as triggering tics or gests in both TD and BFRB, and meta-cognition seems independent of premonitory sensations and relates to distinct clinical characteristics in each clinical group.
authors.affiliation: Full Professor, Department of Psychiatry, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec; Director, OCD Spectrum Study Center, University Institute in Mental Health of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec.
authors.forename: Kieron
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: O'Connor
authors.affiliation: Doctoral Student, University of Quebec in Montreal, Montreal, Quebec.
authors.forename: Marie-Ève
authors.initials: MÈ
authors.lastname: St-Pierre-Delorme
authors.affiliation: Professor, Department of Psychology, University of Quebec in Montreal, Montreal, Quebec; Associate Researcher, University Institute in Mental Health of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec.
authors.forename: Julie
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Leclerc
authors.affiliation: Associate Research Professor, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec; Director, Cognitive and Social Psychophysiology Laboratory, University Institute in Mental Health of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec.
authors.forename: Marc
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lavoie
authors.affiliation: Doctoral Student, University of Montreal, Montreal, Quebec.
authors.forename: Mélodie T
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Blais
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001364:Awareness; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007175:Impulsive Behavior / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D007600:Judgment; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011594:Psychometrics / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D011792:Quebec; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012803:Sick Role; D012928:Social Desirability; D012931:Social Environment; D013223:Statistics as Topic; D019956:Stereotypic Movement Disorder / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013850:Thinking; D013981:Tic Disorders / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology*; D005879:Tourette Syndrome / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000523:psychology*