title: Safety of ACE inhibitor therapies in patients with chronic kidney disease.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  ACE inhibitors are first-line therapy in patients with chronic kidney disease (CKD). The main adverse effects of ACE inhibitors are hypotension, renal function impairment and hyperkalemia.
  
  
  METHODS
  This paper reviews evidence from clinical studies regarding adverse effects of ACE inhibitors in patients with CKD. The safety aspects of ACE inhibitors are discussed in relation to their pharmacological action, drug-drug interactions, drug-diet interaction, precautions needed in certain clinical conditions and other adverse effects.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The main adverse effects of ACE inhibitors follow from their interaction with renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS)-activity and volume depletion. This interaction can be turned into clinical benefit and increase efficacy of ACE inhibitors by reduction in dietary sodium or adding diuretics. Dual RAAS-blockade is no longer advocated in patients with CKD because of the safety issues, and combination of ACE inhibitors with moderate reduction in dietary sodium intake is a better alternative. The intensified treatment regimens based on ACE inhibitors can potentially improve renoprotection, but increase the risk of adverse effects. Better strategies to address safety concerns are needed. INTRODUCTION of clinical rules and safety indicators may help clinicians to identify hazardous co-prescriptions and adverse dietary habits and can decrease the frequency of adverse effects.
authors.affiliation: University Medical Center Groningen, University of Groningen, Clinical Pharmacy and Pharmacology , Groningen , The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Grigory
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Sidorenkov
authors.forename: Gerjan
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Navis
mesh_terms: D000806:Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004347:Drug Interactions; D018565:Food-Drug Interactions; D006801:Humans; D006947:Hyperkalemia / Q000139:chemically induced; D007022:Hypotension / Q000139:chemically induced; D007677:Kidney Function Tests; D051437:Renal Insufficiency / Q000139:chemically induced; D051436:Renal Insufficiency, Chronic / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000503:physiopathology; D012084:Renin-Angiotensin System / Q000187:drug effects*
chemical_list: D000806:Angiotensin-Converting Enzyme Inhibitors
keywords: ACE inhibitors; adverse effects; angioedema; chronic kidney disease; cough; drug interaction; hyperkalemia; sodium restriction