title: Nitrate and nitrite in the diet: how to assess their benefit and risk for human health.
abstract: Nitrate is a natural constituent of the human diet and an approved food additive. It can be partially converted to nitrogen monoxide, which induces vasodilation and thereby decreases blood pressure. This effect is associated with a reduced risk regarding cardiovascular disease, myocardial infarction, and stroke. Moreover, dietary nitrate has been associated with beneficial effects in patients with gastric ulcer, renal failure, or metabolic syndrome. Recent studies indicate that such beneficial health effects due to dietary nitrate may be achievable at intake levels resulting from the daily consumption of nitrate-rich vegetables. N-nitroso compounds are endogenously formed in humans. However, their relevance for human health has not been adequately explored up to now. Nitrate and nitrite are per se not carcinogenic, but under conditions that result in endogenous nitrosation, it cannot be excluded that ingested nitrate and nitrite may lead to an increased cancer risk and may probably be carcinogenic to humans. In this review, the known beneficial and detrimental health effects related to dietary nitrate/nitrite intake are described and the identified gaps in knowledge as well as the research needs required to perform a reliable benefit/risk assessment in terms of long-term human health consequences due to dietary nitrate/nitrite intake are presented.
authors.affiliation: Department of Food Chemistry and Toxicology, University of Kaiserslautern, Kaiserslautern, Germany**
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Habermeyer
authors.forename: Angelika
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Roth
authors.forename: Sabine
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Guth
authors.forename: Patrick
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Diel
authors.forename: Karl-Heinz
authors.initials: KH
authors.lastname: Engel
authors.forename: Bernd
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Epe
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Fürst
authors.forename: Volker
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Heinz
authors.forename: Hans-Ulrich
authors.initials: HU
authors.lastname: Humpf
authors.forename: Hans-Georg
authors.initials: HG
authors.lastname: Joost
authors.forename: Dietrich
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Knorr
authors.forename: Theo
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: de Kok
authors.forename: Sabine
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Kulling
authors.forename: Alfonso
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Lampen
authors.forename: Doris
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Marko
authors.forename: Gerhard
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Rechkemmer
authors.forename: Ivonne
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Rietjens
authors.forename: Richard H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Stadler
authors.forename: Stefan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Vieths
authors.forename: Rudi
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Vogel
authors.forename: Pablo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Steinberg
authors.forename: Gerhard
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Eisenbrand
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood; D004032:Diet; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D006801:Humans; D008461:Meat Products; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000473:pathology; D009566:Nitrates / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000737:chemistry*; D009569:Nitric Oxide / Q000378:metabolism; D009573:Nitrites / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000737:chemistry*; D009603:Nitroso Compounds / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000737:chemistry; D016032:Randomized Controlled Trials as Topic; D012307:Risk Factors; D014675:Vegetables
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D009566:Nitrates; D009573:Nitrites; D009603:Nitroso Compounds; D009569:Nitric Oxide
keywords: Benefit/risk analysis; Biomarkers; N-nitroso compounds; Nitrate; Nitrite