title: Direct-to-consumer personal genome testing for age-related macular degeneration.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Genetic testing may be the next step in clinical medicine for a more personalized approach in determining risk of disease. Direct-to-consumer (DTC) personal genome tests may fulfill this role. We explored the practicability and predictive value of DTC tests from four companies (23andMe, deCODEme, Easy DNA, Genetic Testing Laboratories) for AMD.
  
  
  METHODS
  Body specimens of three individuals were collected and sent to four companies for DNA genotyping and disease risk estimation. In addition, DNA was also genotyped using Illumina HumanOmniExpress 12v1 array in the Rotterdam Study laboratory, and risk estimates of AMD were calculated using the validated prediction model from the population-based Three Continent AMD Consortium.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Genotyped results of the four DTC tests matched genotyping performed by the Rotterdam Study laboratory. The estimated risks provided by the companies varied considerably in the tested individuals, from a 1.6-fold difference for overall relative risk to an up to 12-fold difference for lifetime risk. The lifetime risks for the individuals ranged from 1.4% to 16.1% in the DTC tests, while they varied from 0.5% to 4.2% in the validated prediction model. Most important reasons for the differences in risks were the testing of only a limited set of genetic markers, the choice of the reference population, and the methodology applied for risk calculation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Direct-to-consumer personal genome tests are not suitable for clinical application as yet. More comprehensive genetic testing and inclusion of environmental risk factors may improve risk prediction of AMD.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Gabriëlle H S
authors.initials: GH
authors.lastname: Buitendijk
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Najaf
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Amin
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Netherlands Consortium for Healthy Aging, Netherlands Genomics Initiative, The Hague, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Albert
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hofman
authors.affiliation: Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Cornelia M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: van Duijn
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Johannes R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Vingerling
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands Department of Epidemiology, Erasmus Medical Center, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Caroline C W
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Klaver
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D005260:Female; D020022:Genetic Predisposition to Disease; D005820:Genetic Testing / Q000379:methods*; D016678:Genome; D005838:Genotype; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D008268:Macular Degeneration / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009426:Netherlands / Q000453:epidemiology; D018570:Risk Assessment / Q000379:methods*
keywords: AMD; DTC-tests; age-related macular degeneration; personal genome testing; prediction