title: Plant material features responsible for bamboo's excellent mechanical performance: a comparison of tensile properties of bamboo and spruce at the tissue, fibre and cell wall levels.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Bamboo is well known for its fast growth and excellent mechanical performance, but the underlying relationships between its structure and properties are only partially known. Since it lacks secondary thickening, bamboo cannot use adaptive growth in the same way as a tree would in order to modify the geometry of the stem and increase its moment of inertia to cope with bending stresses caused by wind loads. Consequently, mechanical adaptation can only be achieved at the tissue level, and this study aims to examine how this is achieved by comparison with a softwood tree species at the tissue, fibre and cell wall levels.
  
  
  METHODS
  The mechanical properties of single fibres and tissue slices of stems of mature moso bamboo (Phyllostachys pubescens) and spruce (Picea abies) latewood were investigated in microtensile tests. Cell parameters, cellulose microfibril angles and chemical composition were determined using light and electron microscopy, wide-angle X-ray scattering and confocal Raman microscopy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Pronounced differences in tensile stiffness and strength were found at the tissue and fibre levels, but not at the cell wall level. Thus, under tensile loads, the differing wall structures of bamboo (multilayered) and spruce (sandwich-like) appear to be of minor relevance.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The superior tensile properties of bamboo fibres and fibre bundles are mainly a result of amplified cell wall formation, leading to a densely packed tissue, rather than being based on specific cell wall properties. The material optimization towards extremely compact fibres with a multi-lamellar cell wall in bamboo might be a result of a plant growth strategy that compensates for the lack of secondary thickening growth at the tissue level, which is not only favourable for the biomechanics of the plant but is also increasingly utilized in terms of engineering products made from bamboo culms.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Building Materials, ETH-Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland Applied Wood Materials Laboratory, EMPA-Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland Research Institute of Wood Industry, Chinese Academy of Forestry, Beijing 100091, China.
authors.forename: Xiaoqing
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: Institute for Building Materials, ETH-Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland Applied Wood Materials Laboratory, EMPA-Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Tobias
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Keplinger
authors.affiliation: Institute for Building Materials, ETH-Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland Applied Wood Materials Laboratory, EMPA-Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Notburga
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Gierlinger
authors.affiliation: Institute for Building Materials, ETH-Swiss Federal Institute of Technology Zurich, CH-8093 Zurich, Switzerland Applied Wood Materials Laboratory, EMPA-Swiss Federal Laboratories for Materials Science and Technology, CH-8600 Dübendorf, Switzerland iburgert@ethz.ch.
authors.forename: Ingo
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Burgert
mesh_terms: D031723:Bambusa / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology* / Q000648:ultrastructure; D001696:Biomechanical Phenomena; D002473:Cell Wall / Q000502:physiology* / Q000648:ultrastructure; D002482:Cellulose / Q000378:metabolism; D009928:Organ Specificity; D028222:Picea / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology* / Q000648:ultrastructure; D013059:Spectrum Analysis, Raman; D013314:Stress, Mechanical; D013718:Tensile Strength / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D002482:Cellulose
keywords: Bamboo; Phyllostachys pubescens; Picea abies; Raman imaging; mechanical adaptation; microfibril angle; plant cell wall; spruce; stem biomechanics; tensile stiffness