title: A great enigma of the Italian Renaissance: paleopathological study on the death of Giovanni dalle Bande Nere (1498-1526) and historical relevance of a leg amputation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The Medici project consisted in archeological and paleopathological researches on some members of the great dynasty of the Italian Renaissance. The remains of Giovanni de' Medici, so-called "dalle Bande Nere" (Forlì 1498- Mantua 1526) have not been investigated yet. The enigma of the fatal injury and leg amputation of the famous Captain excited curiosity of paleopathologists, medical scientists and Italian Society of Orthopedic and Traumatology which contributed to realize the project of exhumation and study of his skeletal remains. The aim of the study is to report the first anthropological and paleopathological results.
  
  
  METHODS
  The tomb of Giovanni and his wife Maria Salviati was explored and the skeletal remains were investigated. Anthropological and paleopathological examination defined: age at death, physical constitution and activity, skeletal diseases. The bones of the leg were studied macroscopically, under stereoscopic microscope, at X-ray and CT scans to detect type of injury and level of amputation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The skeleton and muscular insertions of Giovanni revealed a young-adult and vigorous man, subjected to stresses of military activity since adolescence. Right tibia was amputated below the proximal half of diaphysis leaving long tibio-fibular stumps with a horizontal cut only at the lateral portion. Thus, the surgeon limited to complete the traumatic hemi-amputation. Amputation in the Sixteenth Century technically consisted in guillotine incisions below the knee using crescent shaped knife and bony saw, usually leaving a quite long tibial stump. Amputations in the Sixteenth Century were contaminated and grossly performed not providing vascular binding nor wound closure. The surgeon performed the procedure in conformity with surgical knowledge of that period.
authors.forename: Gino
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Fornaciari
authors.forename: Pietro
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Bartolozzi
authors.forename: Carlo
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Bartolozzi
authors.forename: Barbara
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Rossi
authors.forename: Ilario
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Menchi
authors.affiliation: Orthopedics Oncology, "Palazzo Baleani", Teaching Hospital Policlinico Umberto I, Corso Vittorio Emanuele II 244, 00186 Rome, Italy. andrea.piccioli2013@libero.it.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Piccioli
mesh_terms: D000671:Amputation, Surgical / Q000266:history*; D049668:History, 15th Century; D049669:History, 16th Century; D049691:History, Medieval; D006801:Humans; D007869:Leg Injuries / Q000266:history* / Q000601:surgery*; D008297:Male; D008887:Military Medicine / Q000266:history; D010164:Paleopathology / Q000266:history*