title: Current options for the management of aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage-induced cerebral vasospasm: a comprehensive review of the literature.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Cerebral vasospasm is one of the leading causes of morbi-mortality following aneurysmal subarachnoid hemorrhage. The aim of this article is to discuss the current status of vasospasm therapy with emphasis on endovascular treatment.
  
  
  METHODS
  A comprehensive review of the literature obtained by a PubMed search. The most relevant articles related to medical, endovascular and alternative therapies were selected for discussion.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Current accepted medical options include the oral nimodipine and 'triple-H' therapy (hypertension, hypervolemia and hemodilution). Nimodipine remains the only modality proven to reduce the incidence of infarction. Although widely used, 'triple-H' therapy has not been demonstrated to significantly change overall outcome after cerebral vasospasm. Indeed, both induced hypervolemia and hemodilution may have deleterious effects, and more recent physiologic data favor normovolemia with induced hypertension or optimization of cardiac output. Endovascular options include percutaneous transluminal balloon angioplasty (PTA) and intra-arterial (IA) infusion of vasodilators. Multiple case reports and case series have been encountered in the literature using different drug regimens with diverse mechanisms of action. Compared with PTA, IA drug infusion has the advantages of distal penetration and a better safety profile. Its main disadvantages are the more frequent need for repeat treatments and its systemic hemodynamic repercussions. Alternative options using intraventricular/cisternal drug therapy and flow augmentation strategies have also shown possible benefits; however, their use is not yet as well established.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Blood pressure or cardiac output optimization should be the mainstay of hyperdynamic therapy. Endovascular treatment appears to have a positive impact on neurological outcome compared with the natural history of the disease. The role of intraventricular therapy and flow augmentation strategies in association with medical and endovascular treatment may, in the future, play a growing role in the management of patients with severe refractory vasospasm.
authors.affiliation: Department of Interventional Neuroradiology, Baptist Cardiac and Vascular Institute and Baptist Neuroscience Center, Miami, Fla., USA.
authors.forename: Guilherme
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Dabus
authors.affiliation: Departments of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Radiology, Emory University School of Medicine, Marcus Stroke and Neuroscience Center, Grady Memorial Hospital, Atlanta, Ga., USA.
authors.forename: Raul G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Nogueira
keywords: Angioplasty; Delayed cerebral ischemia; Endovascular treatment; Intra-arterial drug infusion; Subarachnoid hemorrhage; Vasospasm