title: Activation with Li enables facile sodium storage in germanium.
abstract: Germanium is a promising sodium ion battery (NIB, NAB, SIB) anode material that is held back by its extremely sluggish kinetics and poor cyclability. We are the first to demonstrate that activation by a single lithiation-delithiation cycle leads to a dramatic improvement in the practically achievable capacity, in rate capability, and in cycling stability of Ge nanowires (GeNWs) and Ge thin film (GeTF). TEM and TOF-SIMS analysis shows that without activation, the initially single crystal GeNWs are effectively Na inactive, while the 100 nm amorphous GeTF sodiates only partially and inhomogeneously. Activation with Li induces amorphization in GeNWs reducing the barrier for nucleation of the NaxGe phase(s) and accelerates solid-state diffusion that aids the performance of both GeNWs and GeTF. Low rate (0.1C) Li activation also introduces a dense distribution of nanopores that lead to further improvements in the rate capability, which is ascribed to the lowered solid-state diffusion distances caused by the effective thinning of the Ge walls and by an additional Na diffusion path via the pore surfaces. The resultant kinetics are promising. Tested at 0.15C (1C = 369 mA/g, i.e. Na/Ge 1:1) for 50 cycles the GeNWs and GeTF maintain a reversible (desodiation) capacity of 346 and 418 mAh/g, respectively. They also demonstrate a capacity of 355 and 360 mAh/g at 1C and 284 and 310 mAh/g at 4C. Even at a very high rate of 10C the GeTF delivers 169 mAh/g. Preliminary results demonstrate that Li activation is also effective in promoting cycling stability of Sb blanket films.
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemical and Materials Engineering, University of Alberta , 9107 116th Street, Edmonton, Alberta T6G 2 V4, Canada.
authors.forename: Alireza
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kohandehghan
authors.forename: Kai
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Cui
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kupsta
authors.forename: Jia
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Ding
authors.forename: Elmira
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Memarzadeh Lotfabad
authors.forename: W Peter
authors.initials: WP
authors.lastname: Kalisvaart
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Mitlin
keywords: Lithium ion battery LIB; antimony Sb; germanium Ge; nanowire; sodium ion battery; thin film