title: Analysis of polymorphisms in Plasmodium falciparum genes related to drug resistance: a survey over four decades under different treatment policies in Brazil.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Anti-malarial resistance in Plasmodium falciparum remains an obstacle for malaria control. Resistance-associated genes were analysed in Brazilian samples over four decades to evaluate the impact of different treatment regimens on the parasite genetic profile.
  
  
  METHODS
  Samples were collected on filter paper from patients infected in the Amazon region from 1984 to 2011. DNA was extracted with Chelex® 100 and monoinfection confirmed by PCR. SNPs in the pfcrt, pfmdr1, pfdhfr and pfdhps genes were assessed by PCR-RFLP. The pfmdr1 copy number was estimated using real time quantitative PCR with SYBR® Green. Parasite response was assessed ex vivo with seven concentrations of each anti-malarial. Patients were treated according to Brazilian guidelines: quinine plus tetracycline or mefloquine in period 1 and ACT in period 2.
  
  
  RESULTS
  All 96 samples presented the pfcrt 76T mutant throughout the assessed periods. In addition, all isolates showed ex vivo chloroquine resistance. The pfmdr1 86Y was detected in 1.5% of samples in period 1, and in 25% in period 2. All samples presented the pfmdr1 1246Y. The analysis of pfmdr1 copy number showed amplification in 37.3% in period 1 and in 42% in period 2. Mutations in pfdhfr were shown as follows: 51I in all samples in period 1 and in 81.2% in period 2; 59R in 6.4% in period 2. The pfdhfr 108N and the pfdhps 437G were seen in all samples along time; the pfdhps 540E in 93.7% in period 1 and in 75% in period 2.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The 76T mutation associated to chloroquine resistance is still present in the parasite population, although this anti-malarial was withdrawn from the chemotherapy of P. falciparum in Brazil in the mid-1980s. All isolates assayed ex vivo for chloroquine showed resistant phenotype and 76T. No association was observed between pfmdr1 mutations and resistance to quinine, mefloquine and artemisinin derivatives. Additionally, the pfdhfr 108N mutation was detected in all samples throughout the evaluated periods, demonstrating fixation of the mutant allele in the parasite population. Changes in Brazilian national guidelines for the malaria chemotherapy in the last 27 years yielded a discreet genetic impact in the parasite population.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Moléstias Infecciosas e Parasitárias, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de São Paulo, Av, Dr, Enéas Carvalho de Aguiar, 470 sala 107, 05403-000 São Paulo, SP, Brazil. julianainoue@usp.br.
authors.forename: Juliana
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Inoue
authors.forename: Dinora
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Lopes
authors.forename: Virgílio
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: do Rosário
authors.forename: Marta
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Machado
authors.forename: Angélica D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Hristov
authors.forename: Giselle Fmc
authors.initials: GF
authors.lastname: Lima
authors.forename: Maria J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Costa-Nascimento
authors.forename: Aluísio C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Segurado
authors.forename: Silvia M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Di Santi
mesh_terms: D000962:Antimalarials / Q000494:pharmacology*; D001938:Brazil; D004351:Drug Resistance / Q000235:genetics; D005819:Genetic Markers / Q000235:genetics; D005838:Genotype; D006801:Humans; D016778:Malaria, Falciparum / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000469:parasitology*; D010963:Plasmodium falciparum / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000235:genetics*; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide; D015800:Protozoan Proteins / Q000235:genetics*
chemical_list: D000962:Antimalarials; D005819:Genetic Markers; D015800:Protozoan Proteins