title: [Psychopathology of the misuse of Subutex®: The Popeye syndrome].
abstract: BACKGROUND
  High dose buprenorphine (HDB), commonly known as Subutex(®), is nowadays largely prescribed as a replacement therapy for major opiate dependence. Its sublingual administration allows a decrease in the withdrawal syndrome accompanying opiate abuse cessation. Over the past few decades, epidemiological data on people on replacement therapy have emphasized an increase in the misuse of Subutex(®) and more specifically intravenous injections of HDB. These growing practices pave the way to major physical consequences or even death. Several studies have highlighted the infectious, vascular, venous and arterial (pseudo-aneurysm) complications stemming from this habit. Among the possible vascular complications, we can notice the presence of abscess, venous thrombosis, phlegmons, skin necrosis, cellulite, and profound and superficial thrombophlebitis at injection sites. These can evolve into chronic edemas of the tips and subcutaneous nodules. The Popeye syndrome is one of the possible complications of this misuse. This syndrome is characterized by the swelling of both sides of the forearms and hands. These edemas tend to become persistent and to be paired with tissue changes such as skin thickening. Besides, the increase in the hands volume can occur bilaterally or sometimes in an asymmetrical way, accentuated on the hand of the non-dominant limb. This syndrome does not decrease, or just a little, after the stoppage of injections. It can have a psychological, social, psychopathological and esthetic impact.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this article, we will focus on the clinical case of a 43-year-old man, who is hospitalized in an addictology unit for massive injections of HDB. This patient suffers from a Popeye syndrome as well as from an alcoholic dependence.
  
  
  METHODS
  Following the description of psychopathological disorders, our analysis will originate from a clarification relative to the specificities of the practice of intravenous HDB injection to better sharpen the understanding of these misuses in their psychopathological and clinical aspects. We will discuss some proposals for interventions aiming at taking better care of the people suffering from a drug addiction characterized by the injection of HDB replacement therapy.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Adam requested an admission in an addictology ward for treatment of a self-medication by Subutex started 4 years ago. A certain awkwardness can be perceived when he lays his highly damaged and marked hands on the desk. His upper limbs, thus on display, have tripled in volume: this indicates the presence of a Popeye syndrome, consequence of repeated Subutex injections. These observations lead us to question the function and the sense of this injection behavior in the mental economy, as this repeated behavior engages the body specifically. This bruised body, marked with repeated injection holes has become a place of inscription, of representation that shows the impossibility to access other ways of expression. In this sense, taking action is becoming an act of speech. Within this speech, we can notice the existence of a profound state of uneasiness. To put up with the painful feeling of inner emptiness that is calling for a necessary filling, aiming at re-establishing a frail balance, Adam appeals to repeated injections. However, when the tortured body signifies its incapacity to receive an ultimate injection, thus showing its limits and the destruction it is undergoing, it is no longer possible to resort to Subutex injections. As a consequence, Adam came up with the idea of quitting. The withdrawal was initiated by himself and not coupled with medical care. It has led him to feel a gap, beyond the physical uneasiness. Adam has tried to fill in this unbearable feeling of empty body with tobacco, alcohol and food. The body, highly mobilized, translates the presence of a physical conflict where a massive mental anxiety is expressed in a hidden way. During the interview, Adam also addressed the repetitive familial pattern and the transgeneration effects. He seems to be fully aware of these.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Several perspectives can be addressed as part of Adam's treatment and especially cognitive-behavioral therapies as they could prove to be of a certain interest. The aim of this therapy would thus be to assess the motivation for change in order to begin a psychotherapeutic work based on personal adherence to the cessation of this misuse. This could be set up in parallel with an anxiety management work.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A better understanding and an extensive knowledge of the possible complications linked to the misuse of HDB seems necessary to sensitize and better inform people who suffer from high-risk behaviors and also to enable a more adapted care.
authors.affiliation: Service d'addictologie, hôpital maritime de Zuydcoote, boulevard Vancauwenberghe, 59123 Zuydcoote, France. Electronic address: jessica.bekaert@hotmail.fr.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Békaert
authors.affiliation: Laboratoire Psitec, domaine universitaire du Pont-de-Bois, université Lille Nord de France, UL3, BP 60149, 59653 Villeneuve d'Ascq cedex, France.
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Podevin
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000437:Alcoholism / Q000523:psychology / Q000534:rehabilitation; D002047:Buprenorphine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002908:Chronic Disease; D015928:Cognitive Behavioral Therapy; D015897:Comorbidity; D003220:Conflict, Psychological; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003674:Defense Mechanisms; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004487:Edema / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000523:psychology; D005542:Forearm; D005602:France; D006227:Hand Deformities, Acquired / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D058850:Opiate Substitution Treatment; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology* / Q000534:rehabilitation; D063487:Prescription Drug Misuse / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D011599:Psychopathology; D012008:Recurrence; D012871:Skin Diseases / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000523:psychology; D015819:Substance Abuse, Intravenous / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D013577:Syndrome
chemical_list: D002047:Buprenorphine
keywords: Addiction; Injection intraveineuse; Intravenous injection; Popeye syndrome; Subutex(®); Syndrome de Popeye