title: Recovery of neurocognitive functions following sustained abstinence after substance dependence and implications for treatment.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Substance Use Disorders (SUDs) have been associated with impaired neurocognitive functioning, which may (partly) improve with sustained abstinence. New treatments are emerging, aimed at improving cognitive functions, and being tested. However, no integrated review is available regarding neurocognitive recovery following sustained abstinence.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  In this review, results from prospective studies on neurocognitive recovery using neuropsychological assessments before and after sustained abstinence from SUDs are summarized and discussed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Thirty-five prospective studies were selected for this review, including twenty-two alcohol, three cannabis, four cocaine, three (meth)amphetamine, and three opioid studies. Results suggest that some cognitive functions (partially) recover after sustained abstinence, and that there are predictors of an unfavorable course such as poly-substance use and number of previous detoxifications.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Prospective studies indicate that sustained abstinence after SUDs generally results in (partial) neurocognitive recovery. However, a final answer regarding full recovery awaits prospective studies with neurocognitive assessments before, during, and after sustained abstinence from SUDs. New interventions that might enhance neurocognitive recovery after abstinence are discussed, including neurocognitive training, medication and neuromodulation.
authors.affiliation: Addiction, Development, and Psychopathology (ADAPT) lab, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research (AIAR), Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 5, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands. Electronic address: m.h.j.schulte@uva.nl.
authors.forename: Mieke H J
authors.initials: MH
authors.lastname: Schulte
authors.affiliation: Addiction, Development, and Psychopathology (ADAPT) lab, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Developmental Psychology and Psychonomics, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Janna
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Cousijn
authors.affiliation: Addiction, Development, and Psychopathology (ADAPT) lab, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Tess E
authors.initials: TE
authors.lastname: den Uyl
authors.affiliation: Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research (AIAR), Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 5, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Arkin Mental Health Care, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Anna E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Goudriaan
authors.affiliation: Amsterdam Institute for Addiction Research (AIAR), Department of Psychiatry, Academic Medical Center, University of Amsterdam, Meibergdreef 5, 1105 AZ Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Wim
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: van den Brink
authors.affiliation: VU University Medical Center, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Dick J
authors.initials: DJ
authors.lastname: Veltman
authors.affiliation: Addiction, Development, and Psychopathology (ADAPT) lab, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Thelma
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Schilt
authors.affiliation: Addiction, Development, and Psychopathology (ADAPT) lab, Department of Psychology, University of Amsterdam, Weesperplein 4, 1018 XA Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Reinout W
authors.initials: RW
authors.lastname: Wiers
mesh_terms: D003072:Cognition Disorders / Q000209:etiology / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D006801:Humans; D020127:Recovery of Function / Q000502:physiology*; D019966:Substance-Related Disorders / Q000150:complications / Q000534:rehabilitation*
keywords: Addiction; Clinical implications; Neuropsychology; Recovery; Substance dependence