title: First report of Toxoplasma gondii in camels (Camelus dromedarius) in Ethiopia: bioassay and seroepidemiological investigation.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Toxoplasmosis is a major public health concern in many countries of the world. A cross-sectional and follow up experimental study designs were used for seroepidemiological and bioassay studies, respectively from November 2012 to April 2013. The objectives were to estimate the seroprevalence of T. gondii infection, to assess risk factors and to isolate the parasite from camels in the Fentale district, Ethiopia. A direct agglutination test (DAT) and indirect enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kits were used to test camel sera. Hearts and tongues (each 25 g) from 31 seropositive camels were bioassayed in mice. Associations between seroprevalence and potential risk factors (collected using a questionnaire survey) were analyzed using logistic regression.
  
  
  RESULTS
  An overall T. gondii prevalence of 49.62% (220/455) by DAT and 40.49% (179/451) by indirect ELISA test were detected. Herd level seroprevalence of 96.77% (30/31) (95% CI: 83.30- 99.92) by DAT was recorded and it was significantly higher in areas where wild felids are present (P = 0.038). Multivariable logistic regression showed that the likelihood of acquiring T. gondii infection was significantly higher in camels in the Ilala pastoral association [PA] (82.26%) (Adjusted Odds ratio [aOR] = 10.8; P < 0.001) than camels in the Galcha PA (31.43%), in camels of ≥ 8 years old (56.52%; aOR = 1.88; P = 0,033) than camels of ≤ 4 years old (34.26%) and in areas where domestic cats are present (aOR = 4.16; P = 0.006). All camel owners were uneducated, handle aborted fetus with bare hands, and drink raw camel milk. DAT and ELISA tests had moderate agreement (Kappa = 0.41). Viable T. gondii were isolated from 16.13% (5/31) of DAT positive camels. One DAT positive but ELISA negative camel sample gave a cyst positive result.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  T. gondii infection of camels in the study district is widespread. Age, presence of domestic cats and study PA are independent predictors of T. gondii seropositivity. Isolation of viable parasites from edible tissues of camels and the very poor knowledge of pastoralists about toxoplasmosis suggest the need for prevention of toxoplasmosis through bio-security measures, education and further investigation to unravel the impact of camel toxoplasmosis deserves consideration.
authors.forename: Endrias Zewdu
authors.initials: EZ
authors.lastname: Gebremedhin
authors.forename: Hasen Awel
authors.initials: HA
authors.lastname: Yunus
authors.forename: Gebregergs
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Tesfamaryam
authors.forename: Tesfaye Sisay
authors.initials: TS
authors.lastname: Tessema
authors.forename: Fufa
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Dawo
authors.forename: Getachew
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Terefe
authors.forename: Vincenzo
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Di Marco
authors.forename: Maria
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Vitale
mesh_terms: D000822:Animal Husbandry / Q000379:methods; D000818:Animals; D001681:Biological Assay; D002162:Camelus; D005002:Ethiopia / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D051379:Mice; D012307:Risk Factors; D016036:Seroepidemiologic Studies; D014122:Toxoplasma / Q000276:immunology*; D014124:Toxoplasmosis, Animal / Q000097:blood* / Q000453:epidemiology