title: Consuming more of daily caloric intake at dinner predisposes to obesity. A 6-year population-based prospective cohort study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  It has been hypothesized that assuming most of the caloric intake later in the day leads to metabolic disadvantages, but few studies are available on this topic. Aim of our study was to prospectively examine whether eating more of the daily caloric intake at dinner leads to an increased risk of obesity, hyperglycemia, metabolic syndrome, and non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD).
  
  
  METHODS
  1245 non-obese, non-diabetic middle-aged adults from a population-based cohort underwent a 3-day food record questionnaire at enrollment. Anthropometric values, blood pressure, blood metabolic variables, and estimated liver fat were measured at baseline and at 6-year follow-up.
  
  
  METHODS
  Prospective cohort study.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Subjects were divided according to tertiles of percent daily caloric intake at dinner. A significant increase in the incidence rate of obesity (from 4.7 to 11.4%), metabolic syndrome (from 11.1 to 16.1%), and estimated NAFLD (from 16.5 to 23.8%) was observed from the lower to higher tertile. In a multiple logistic regression model adjusted for multiple covariates, subjects in the highest tertile showed an increased risk of developing obesity (OR = 2.33; 95% CI 1.17-4.65; p = 0.02), metabolic syndrome (OR = 1.52; 95% CI 1.01-2.30; p = 0.04), and NAFLD (OR = 1.56; 95% CI 1.10-2.22; p = 0.01).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Consuming more of the daily energy intake at dinner is associated with an increased risk of obesity, metabolic syndrome, and NAFLD.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Simona
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Bo
authors.affiliation: Emergency Department, Gradenigo Hospital, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Giovanni
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Musso
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Guglielmo
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Beccuti
authors.affiliation: Dietology Unit, Città della Salute e della Scienza, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Maurizio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Fadda
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Debora
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Fedele
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Roberto
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Gambino
authors.affiliation: Diabetic Clinic, Hospital of Asti, Asti, Italy.
authors.forename: Luigi
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Gentile
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Marilena
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Durazzo
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Ezio
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Ghigo
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Sciences, University of Turin, Turin, Italy.
authors.forename: Maurizio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cassader
mesh_terms: D004198:Disease Susceptibility; D002149:Energy Intake; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009765:Obesity / Q000209:etiology*; D011446:Prospective Studies; D013997:Time Factors