title: Advances in neuroimaging.
abstract: Over the last 20 years there have been great advances in the field of neuroimaging. However, information is still lacking for patients with a disorder of sex development (DSD) due to the rarity of these conditions. In this chapter the authors will review newly emerging techniques with a focus on the connectivity of the brain, describe sexually dimorphic brain structures and functions, and summarise what is known about the neuroanatomy and neurochemistry of individuals with a DSD. Sexual dimorphism exists in all aspects of neuroanatomy, neurochemistry and neurofunction, but the major challenge is to evaluate the relationship between these differences and relate them to the genetic and hormonal environment of the individual. Further imaging studies of normal gender differences are needed before the implications of neuroimaging findings for individuals with a DSD can be determined. Future directions for study include the association between gender-specific brain connectivity patterns and gender-related differences of various brain diseases.
authors.affiliation: Department of Child Health, Royal Hospital for Sick Children, Glasgow, UK.
authors.forename: Martina E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Rodie
authors.forename: Kirsten P
authors.initials: KP
authors.lastname: Forbes
authors.forename: Keith
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Muir
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D012734:Disorders of Sex Development / Q000473:pathology* / Q000503:physiopathology; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D059906:Neuroimaging / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D012727:Sex Characteristics