title: Effects of the FITKids randomized controlled trial on executive control and brain function.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To assess the effect of a physical activity (PA) intervention on brain and behavioral indices of executive control in preadolescent children.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two hundred twenty-one children (7-9 years) were randomly assigned to a 9-month afterschool PA program or a wait-list control. In addition to changes in fitness (maximal oxygen consumption), electrical activity in the brain (P3-ERP) and behavioral measures (accuracy, reaction time) of executive control were collected by using tasks that modulated attentional inhibition and cognitive flexibility.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Fitness improved more among intervention participants from pretest to posttest compared with the wait-list control (1.3 mL/kg per minute, 95% confidence interval [CI]: 0.3 to 2.4; d = 0.34 for group difference in pre-to-post change score). Intervention participants exhibited greater improvements from pretest to posttest in inhibition (3.2%, 95% CI: 0.0 to 6.5; d = 0.27) and cognitive flexibility (4.8%, 95% CI: 1.1 to 8.4; d = 0.35 for group difference in pre-to-post change score) compared with control. Only the intervention group increased attentional resources from pretest to posttest during tasks requiring increased inhibition (1.4 µV, 95% CI: 0.3 to 2.6; d = 0.34) and cognitive flexibility (1.5 µV, 95% CI: 0.6 to 2.5; d = 0.43). Finally, improvements in brain function on the inhibition task (r = 0.22) and performance on the flexibility task correlated with intervention attendance (r = 0.24).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The intervention enhanced cognitive performance and brain function during tasks requiring greater executive control. These findings demonstrate a causal effect of a PA program on executive control, and provide support for PA for improving childhood cognition and brain health.
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois; chhillma@illinois.edu.
authors.forename: Charles H
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Hillman
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology, Michigan State University, East Lansing, Michigan;
authors.forename: Matthew B
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Pontifex
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Health Education, University of Texas at Austin, Austin, Texas;
authors.forename: Darla M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Castelli
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois;
authors.forename: Naiman A
authors.initials: NA
authors.lastname: Khan
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois;
authors.forename: Lauren B
authors.initials: LB
authors.lastname: Raine
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois;
authors.forename: Mark R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Scudder
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois;
authors.forename: Eric S
authors.initials: ES
authors.lastname: Drollette
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Community Health, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Urbana-Champaign, Illinois;
authors.forename: Robert D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Moore
authors.affiliation: Department of Exercise Science, Schreiner College, Kerrville, Texas; and.
authors.forename: Chien-Ting
authors.initials: CT
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.affiliation: School of Sport Sciences, Waseda University, Tokorozawa, Saitama, Japan.
authors.forename: Keita
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Kamijo
mesh_terms: D001835:Body Weight; D001921:Brain / Q000502:physiology*; D002648:Child; D003071:Cognition / Q000502:physiology*; D056344:Executive Function / Q000502:physiology*; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D010809:Physical Fitness / Q000502:physiology*; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D011930:Reaction Time / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: aerobic fitness; cognition; physical activity; randomized controlled trial