title: Evolution of bluetongue virus serotype 1 in northern Australia over 30 years.
abstract: Bluetongue virus serotype 1 (BTV 1) was first isolated in Australia from cattle blood collected in 1979 at Beatrice Hill Farm (BHF), Northern Territory (NT). From long-term surveillance programs (1977 to 2011), 2,487 isolations of 10 BTV serotypes were made. The most frequently isolated serotype was BTV 1 (41%, 1,019) followed by BTV 16 (17.5%, 436) and BTV 20 (14%, 348). In 3 years, no BTVs were isolated, and in 12 years, no BTV 1 was isolated. Seventeen BTV 1 isolates were sequenced and analyzed in comparison with 10 Australian prototype serotypes. BTV 1 showed an episodic pattern of evolutionary change characterized by four distinct periods. Each period consisted primarily of slow genetic drift which was punctuated from time to time by genetic shifts generated by segment reassortment and the introduction of new genome segments. Evidence was found for coevolution of BTV genome segments. Evolutionary dynamics and selection pressure estimates showed strong temporal and clock-like molecular evolutionary dynamics of six Australian BTV genome segments. Bayesian coalescent estimates of mean substitution rates clustered in the range of 3.5 × 10(-4) to 5.3 × 10(-4) substitutions per site per year. All BTV genome segments evolved under strong purifying (negative) selection, with only three sites identified as under pervasive diversifying (positive) selection. The obligate replication in alternate hosts (insect vector and vertebrate hosts) imposed strong evolutionary constraints. The dominant mechanism generating genetic diversity of BTV 1 at BHF was through the introduction of new viruses and reassortment of genome segments with existing viruses.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Bluetongue virus (BTV) is the causative agent of bluetongue disease in ruminants. It is a disease of concern globally and is transmitted by biting midges (Culicoides species). Analysis of the evolutionary and selection pressures on BTV 1 at a single surveillance site in northern Australia showed strong temporal and clock-like dynamics. Obligate replication in alternate hosts of insect and vertebrate imposed strong evolutionary constraints, with all BTV genome segments evolving under strong purifying (negative) selection. Generation of genetic diversity of BTV 1 in northern Australia is through genome segment reassortment and the introduction of new serotypes.
authors.affiliation: CSIRO Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, Australia peter.walker@csiro.au david.boyle@csiro.au.
authors.forename: David B
authors.initials: DB
authors.lastname: Boyle
authors.affiliation: CSIRO Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Rachel
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Amos-Ritchie
authors.affiliation: CSIRO Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Ivano
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Broz
authors.affiliation: CSIRO Biosecurity, Australian Animal Health Laboratory, Geelong, Victoria, Australia peter.walker@csiro.au david.boyle@csiro.au.
authors.forename: Peter J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Walker
authors.affiliation: Northern Territory Department of Resources, Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia.
authors.forename: Lorna
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Melville
authors.affiliation: Northern Territory Department of Resources, Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Flanagan
authors.affiliation: Northern Territory Department of Resources, Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia.
authors.forename: Steven
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Davis
authors.affiliation: Northern Territory Department of Resources, Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia.
authors.forename: Neville
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Hunt
authors.affiliation: Northern Territory Department of Resources, Berrimah Veterinary Laboratories, Berrimah, Northern Territory, Australia.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Weir
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001315:Australia / Q000453:epidemiology; D001819:Bluetongue / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000821:virology*; D001820:Bluetongue virus / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics* / Q000276:immunology / Q000302:isolation & purification; D002417:Cattle; D016000:Cluster Analysis; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D040961:Genetic Drift; D014644:Genetic Variation; D005838:Genotype; D017720:Molecular Epidemiology; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D012367:RNA, Viral / Q000235:genetics; D016865:Reassortant Viruses / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D011995:Recombination, Genetic; D012641:Selection, Genetic; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D065288:Serogroup
chemical_list: D012367:RNA, Viral