title: Chronic opioid therapy for chronic non-cancer pain: a review and comparison of treatment guidelines.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Long-term opioid use for chronic non-cancer pain has increased substantially in recent years despite the paucity of strong supporting scientific data and concerns regarding adverse effects and potential misuse.
  
  
  METHODS
  Review and summary of practice guidelines available on PubMed and Cochrane databases as well as on the Internet on chronic opioid therapy from June 2004 to June 2013.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To review expert-developed practice guidelines on chronic opioid therapy, published in different countries over the past decade in order to reveal similar principles of therapy and to provide useful information and references for future development of opioid guidelines to identify adequately supported practice points and areas in need of further scientific evidence.
  
  
  METHODS
  Seven guidelines were identified as pertaining specifically to the long-term use of opioids for general chronic non-cancer pain from an initial search of the PubMed/Medline and Cochrane databases using combinations of the search terms "opioid," "chronic opioid therapy," "chronic pain," "chronic non-cancer pain," "chronic non-malignant pain," "guidelines," "practice guidelines," and "clinical practice guidelines," filtered to include only articles on humans published in the English language over the past 10 years.
  
  
  RESULTS
  All guidelines espouse an individual approach to management, beginning with a comprehensive patient evaluation, with particular focus on eliciting factors that may indicate potential drug misuse and abuse, and a trial of therapy to determine the course of treatment. Goals of treatment should be adequately discussed with and consented to by the patient. Opioids are generally not recommended as first-line therapy but, when used, clinicians should closely monitor patients for loss of response, adverse effects or aberrant behavior, and revise the treatment plan accordingly. Urine drug testing (UDT) may be used as a tool to monitor for aberrant behavior or drug misuse; opioid rotation may be considered when loss of response or adverse effects are a concern, at a starting dose lower than the calculated equianalgesic dose.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Information on some African nations, countries in the Middle-East, and Pacific Islands is not available and therefore was not included in this review.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There is a growing body of scientific evidence to support opioid use in chronic pain. Future work should focus on continuing to generate good-quality evidence on the long-term benefits of opioid therapy, as well as scientific data to guide drug choice and dosing for specific conditions, populations, and situations.
authors.affiliation: Laboratory and Clinical Research Institute for Pain, Department of Anaesthesiology, The University of Hong Kong; Centre for Integrated Preclinical Drug Development, The University of Queensland; School of Medicine and Pharmacology, University of Western A.
authors.forename: Chi Wai
authors.initials: CW
authors.lastname: Cheung
authors.forename: Qiu
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Qiu
authors.forename: Siu-Wai
authors.initials: SW
authors.lastname: Choi
authors.forename: Brendan
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Moore
authors.forename: Roger
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Goucke
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Irwin
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D059350:Chronic Pain / Q000188:drug therapy*; D006801:Humans; D059408:Pain Management / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards; D017410:Practice Guidelines as Topic / Q000592:standards*
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid