title: Olfactory system of highly trained dogs detects prostate cancer in urine samples.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We established diagnostic accuracy in terms of the sensitivity and specificity with which a rigorously trained canine olfactory system could recognize specific volatile organic compounds of prostate cancer in urine samples.
  
  
  METHODS
  Two 3-year-old female German Shepherd Explosion Detection Dogs were trained to identify prostate cancer specific volatile organic compounds in urine samples. They were tested on 362 patients with prostate cancer (range low risk to metastatic) and on 540 healthy controls with no nonneoplastic disease or nonprostatic tumor. This cross-sectional design for diagnostic accuracy was performed at a single Italian teaching hospital and at the Italian Ministry of Defense Military Veterinary Center.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For dog 1 sensitivity was 100% (95% CI 99.0-100.0) and specificity was 98.7% (95% CI 97.3-99.5). For dog 2 sensitivity was 98.6% (95% CI 96.8-99.6) and specificity was 97.6% (95% CI 95.9-98.7). When considering only men older than 45 years in the control group, dog 1 achieved 100% sensitivity and 98% specificity (95% CI 96-99.2), and dog 2 achieved 98.6% sensitivity (95% CI 96.8-99.6) and 96.4% specificity (95% CI 93.9-98.1). Analysis of false-positive cases revealed no consistent pattern in participant demographics or tumor characteristics.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A trained canine olfactory system can detect prostate cancer specific volatile organic compounds in urine samples with high estimated sensitivity and specificity. Further studies are needed to investigate the potential predictive value of this procedure to identify prostate cancer.
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy. Electronic address: gianluigi.taverna@humanitas.it.
authors.forename: Gianluigi
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Taverna
authors.affiliation: Italian Ministry of Defense Military Veterinary Center, Grosseto, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Lorenzo
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Tidu
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Fabio
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Grizzi
authors.affiliation: Istituto di Ricovero e Cura a Carattere Scientifico, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Valter
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Torri
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Alberto
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mandressi
authors.affiliation: Italian Ministry of Defense Military Veterinary Center, Grosseto, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Paolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Sardella
authors.affiliation: Italian Ministry of Defense Military Veterinary Center, Grosseto, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Giuseppe
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: La Torre
authors.affiliation: Italian Ministry of Defense Military Veterinary Center, Grosseto, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Giampiero
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Cocciolone
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Mauro
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Seveso
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Guido
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Giusti
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Rodolfo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hurle
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Armando
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Santoro
authors.affiliation: Humanitas Clinical and Research Center, Rozzano, Milan, Italy.
authors.forename: Pierpaolo
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Graziotti
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D000818:Animals; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D004285:Dogs / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011471:Prostatic Neoplasms / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000652:urine*; D012680:Sensitivity and Specificity; D012903:Smell; D055549:Volatile Organic Compounds / Q000652:urine*
chemical_list: D055549:Volatile Organic Compounds
keywords: diagnosis; dogs; olfactory perception; prostatic neoplasms; volatile organic compounds