title: Transcranial direct current stimulation over the left prefrontal cortex increases randomness of choice in instrumental learning.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There is growing evidence from neuro-computational studies that instrumental learning involves the dynamic interaction of a computationally rigid, low-level striatal and a more flexible, high-level prefrontal component.
  
  
  METHODS
  To evaluate the role of the prefrontal cortex in instrumental learning, we applied anodal transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) optimized for the left dorsolateral prefrontal cortex, by using realistic MR-derived finite element model-based electric field simulations. In a study with a double-blind, sham-controlled, repeated-measures design, sixteen male participants performed a probabilistic learning task while receiving anodal and sham tDCS in a counterbalanced order.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Compared to sham tDCS, anodal tDCS significantly increased the amount of maladaptive shifting behavior after optimal outcomes during learning when reward probabilities were highly dissociable. Derived parameters of the Q-learning computational model further revealed a significantly increased model parameter that was sensitive to random action selection in the anodal compared to the sham tDCS session, whereas the learning rate parameter was not influenced significantly by tDCS.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results congruently indicate that prefrontal tDCS during instrumental learning increased randomness of choice, possibly reflecting the influence of the cognitive prefrontal component.
authors.affiliation: Department Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany. Electronic address: zsoltturi@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Zsolt
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Turi
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Tromsø, Norway.
authors.forename: Matthias
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Mittner
authors.affiliation: Department Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Opitz
authors.affiliation: Department Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Miriam
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Popkes
authors.affiliation: Department Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Walter
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Paulus
authors.affiliation: Department Clinical Neurophysiology, University Medical Center, Georg-August University, Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Antal
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D002755:Choice Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D003216:Conditioning, Operant / Q000502:physiology*; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D017397:Prefrontal Cortex / Q000502:physiology*; D065908:Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: Dorsolateral prefrontal cortex; Exploitation; Exploration; Probabilistic learning task; Transcranial direct current stimulation; Working memory