title: Skeletal tissue engineering using mesenchymal or embryonic stem cells: clinical and experimental data.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) can be obtained from a wide variety of tissues for bone tissue engineering such as bone marrow, adipose, birth-associated, peripheral blood, periosteum, dental and muscle. MSCs from human fetal bone marrow and embryonic stem cells (ESCs) are also promising cell sources.
  
  
  METHODS
  In vitro, in vivo and clinical evidence was collected using MEDLINE® (1950 to January 2014), EMBASE (1980 to January 2014) and Google Scholar (1980 to January 2014) databases.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Enhanced results have been found when combining bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stem cells (BMMSCs) with recently developed scaffolds such as glass ceramics and starch-based polymeric scaffolds. Preclinical studies investigating adipose tissue-derived stem cells and umbilical cord tissue-derived stem cells suggest that they are likely to become promising alternatives. Stem cells derived from periosteum and dental tissues such as the periodontal ligament have an osteogenic potential similar to BMMSCs. Stem cells from human fetal bone marrow have demonstrated superior proliferation and osteogenic differentiation than perinatal and postnatal tissues. Despite ethical concerns and potential for teratoma formation, developments have also been made for the use of ESCs in terms of culture and ideal scaffold.
authors.affiliation: Aristotle University Medical School, 'PapaGeorgiou' Hospital, Academic Orthopaedic Unit , Thessaloniki , Greece.
authors.forename: Zakareya
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Gamie
authors.forename: Robert J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: MacFarlane
authors.forename: Alicia
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tomkinson
authors.forename: Alexandros
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Moniakis
authors.forename: Gui Tong
authors.initials: GT
authors.lastname: Tran
authors.forename: Yehya
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Gamie
authors.forename: Athanasios
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mantalaris
authors.forename: Eleftherios
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Tsiridis
mesh_terms: D000273:Adipose Tissue / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology; D000818:Animals; D001842:Bone and Bones / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology*; D002454:Cell Differentiation / Q000502:physiology; D053595:Embryonic Stem Cells / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D059630:Mesenchymal Stem Cells / Q000502:physiology*; D010012:Osteogenesis / Q000502:physiology*; D023822:Tissue Engineering / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends*; D054457:Tissue Scaffolds / Q000639:trends
keywords: adipose; bone; cells; embryonic; engineering; marrow; scaffold; stem; tissue; umbilical