title: Transition to annual life history coincides with reduction in cell cycle speed during early cleavage in three independent clades of annual killifish.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Annual killifishes inhabit temporary ponds and their embryos survive the dry season encased in the mud by entering diapause, a process that arrests embryonic development during hostile conditions. Annual killifishes are present within three clades distributed in Africa (one East and one West of the Dahomey gap) and South America. Within each of these phylogenetic clades, a non-annual clade is sister taxon to a annual clade and therefore represent an example of convergent evolution. Early cleavage of teleost embryos is characterized by a very fast cell cycle (15-30 minutes) and lack of G1 and G2 phases. Here, we decided to investigate rates of early cleavage in annual killifishes. In addition, we specifically tested whether also annual killifish embryos lack G1 and G2 phases.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We used time lapse brightfield microscopy to investigate cell division kinetics during the first developmental stages of annual- and non-annual species belonging to the three different phylogenetic clades. Annual killifishes of all three clades showed cleavage times significantly longer when compared to their non-annual sister taxa (average 35 min vs. average 75 min). Using FUCCI fluorescent imaging of the cell cycle after microinjection in the annual species Nothobranchius furzeri, we demonstrate that the first 5 division are synchronous and do not show a G1 phase. Cell cycle synchronization is lost after the 5th cleavage division.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results show, for the first time, that cell cycle rate during cleavage, a trait thought to be rather evolutionary conserved can undergo convergent evolutionary change in response to variations in life-history.
authors.affiliation: Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy.
authors.forename: Luca
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Dolfi
authors.affiliation: Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy.
authors.forename: Roberto
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Ripa
authors.affiliation: Scuola Normale Superiore, Pisa, Italy ; Fritz Lipmann Institute for Age Research, Leibniz Institute, Leibniz, Germany.
authors.forename: Alessandro
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Cellerino
keywords: Diapause; Early development; Imaging; Life history evolution; Midblastula transition; Nothobranchius; Segmentation