title: Levorphanol: revisiting an underutilized analgesic.
abstract: Levorphanol (levo-3-hydroxy-N-methylmorphinan) is a step 3 opioid first developed in the 1940s as an alternative to morphine. Levorphanol belongs to the morphinan opioid series. Levorphanol has greater potency than morphine and is a potent N-methyl-d aspartate (NMDA) antagonist. Levorphanol interferes with the uptake of norepinephrine and serotonin, which makes it potentially useful for neuropathic pain. Glucuronidation changes Levorphanol to Levorphanol-3-glucuronide with excretion by the kidney. Levorphanol has a long half-life and may accumulate with repeated dosing. Levorphanol can be administered orally, intravenously, and subcutaneously. This article provides an update regarding the pharmacodynamics, pharmacology, and clinical efficacy of this often overlooked step 3 opioid.
authors.affiliation: Director of Palliative Care, Division of Hematology/Oncology, Associate Professor, Mayo Clinic College of Medicine, Mayo Clinic Hospital, Scottsdale, Arizona, USA.
authors.forename: Eric
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Prommer
keywords: NMDA; neuropathic pain; opioid; pain