title: The Roman and Islamic spice trade: New archaeological evidence.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Tropical spices have long been utilized in traditional medicine and cuisine. New archaeological evidence highlights temporal changes in the nature and scale of the ancient spice trade and in the ancient usage of these plants. Furthermore, a study of their 'materiality' highlights that the impact of spices extends beyond their material properties. Here the botanical remains of spices recovered from archaeological excavations at a port active in the Roman and medieval Islamic spice trade are evaluated.
  
  
  METHODS
  Recent excavations at Quseir al-Qadim, an ancient port located on the Red Sea coast of Egypt, have provided new evidence for the spice trade. Due to the arid conditions ancient botanical remains were preserved in abundance and these included spices, as well as a wide range of other food plants. Quseir al-Qadim was active as a transport hub during both the Roman and Islamic periods (ca. AD 1-250, known as Myos Hormos, and again during ca. AD 1050-1500, known as Kusayr), and the remains thus facilitate a study of temporal change in the trade and usage of these spices. Standard archaeobotanical methods were used to recover, identify and analyze these remains.
  
  
  RESULTS
  At least seven tropical spices were recovered from the excavations, as well as several other tropical imports, including black pepper (Piper nigrum), ginger (Zingiber officinale), cardamom (Elettaria cardamomum), turmeric (Curcuma sp.), fagara (cf. Tetradium ruticarpum), myrobalan (Terminalia bellirica and Terminalia chebula) and betelnut (Areca catechu). A marked contrast between the two chronological periods in the range of spices recovered points to changes in the nature and scale of the trade between the Roman and medieval Islamic periods, while differences in the contexts from which they were recovered help to identify temporal changes in the way in which the spices were utilized during those periods.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Archaeological and textual evidence suggest that in antiquity spices were used in ritual (funeral rites, offerings), in perfumery, and in medicinal remedies, with black pepper the only tropical spice regularly employed in cuisine. By the medieval period the culinary role of spices had grown significantly, both in the Middle East and in Europe, while retaining their importance in medicinal applications. In both time periods they were luxuries available only to the upper strata of society, but the material properties of spices and their elite status made them desirable to a wider section of society. In their pursuit of spices people became entangled in a meshwork of relationships, altered social realities and political power struggles. Globalization is one such entanglement, highlighting that the potency of spices goes far beyond their ability to stimulate our taste buds, delight our sense of smell and cure our ailments.
authors.affiliation: School of Archaeology & Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK. Electronic address: mvdv1@le.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Marijke
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Van der Veen
authors.affiliation: School of Archaeology & Ancient History, University of Leicester, Leicester LE1 7RH, UK.
authors.forename: Jacob
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Morales
mesh_terms: D002562:Ceremonial Behavior; D003132:Commerce; D003296:Cooking / Q000266:history; D004534:Egypt; D005655:Funeral Rites / Q000266:history; D049690:History, Ancient; D049691:History, Medieval; D006801:Humans; D008519:Medicine, Traditional; D010476:Perfume / Q000266:history; D008517:Phytotherapy / Q000266:history; D017365:Spices / Q000266:history*
chemical_list: D010476:Perfume
keywords: Archaeology; Globalization; Materiality; Quseir al-Qadim; Spices; Trade