title: Monte Carlo study of radiation dose enhancement by gadolinium in megavoltage and high dose rate radiotherapy.
abstract: MRI is often used in tumor localization for radiotherapy treatment planning, with gadolinium (Gd)-containing materials often introduced as a contrast agent. Motexafin gadolinium is a novel radiosensitizer currently being studied in clinical trials. The nanoparticle technologies can target tumors with high concentration of high-Z materials. This Monte Carlo study is the first detailed quantitative investigation of high-Z material Gd-induced dose enhancement in megavoltage external beam photon therapy. BEAMnrc, a radiotherapy Monte Carlo simulation package, was used to calculate dose enhancement as a function of Gd concentration. Published phase space files for the TrueBeam flattening filter free (FFF) and conventional flattened 6MV photon beams were used. High dose rate (HDR) brachytherapy with Ir-192 source was also investigated as a reference. The energy spectra difference caused a dose enhancement difference between the two beams. Since the Ir-192 photons have lower energy yet, the photoelectric effect in the presence of Gd leads to even higher dose enhancement in HDR. At depth of 1.8 cm, the percent mean dose enhancement for the FFF beam was 0.38±0.12, 1.39±0.21, 2.51±0.34, 3.59±0.26, and 4.59±0.34 for Gd concentrations of 1, 5, 10, 15, and 20 mg/mL, respectively. The corresponding values for the flattened beam were 0.09±0.14, 0.50±0.28, 1.19±0.29, 1.68±0.39, and 2.34±0.24. For Ir-192 with direct contact, the enhanced were 0.50±0.14, 2.79±0.17, 5.49±0.12, 8.19±0.14, and 10.80±0.13. Gd-containing materials used in MRI as contrast agents can also potentially serve as radiosensitizers in radiotherapy. This study demonstrates that Gd can be used to enhance radiation dose in target volumes not only in HDR brachytherapy, but also in 6 MV FFF external beam radiotherapy, but higher than the currently used clinical concentration (>5 mg/mL) would be needed.
authors.affiliation: University of California, Berkeley, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Daniel G
authors.initials: DG
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America.
authors.forename: Vladimir
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Feygelman
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America.
authors.forename: Eduardo G
authors.initials: EG
authors.lastname: Moros
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America.
authors.forename: Kujtim
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Latifi
authors.affiliation: Radiation Oncology, Moffitt Cancer Center, Tampa, Florida, United States of America.
authors.forename: Geoffrey G
authors.initials: GG
authors.lastname: Zhang
mesh_terms: D001918:Brachytherapy / Q000379:methods; D003287:Contrast Media / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D005682:Gadolinium / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006801:Humans; D008665:Metalloporphyrins / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D009010:Monte Carlo Method; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000532:radiotherapy; D011838:Radiation-Sensitizing Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D011879:Radiotherapy Dosage
chemical_list: D003287:Contrast Media; D008665:Metalloporphyrins; D011838:Radiation-Sensitizing Agents; C437683:motexafin gadolinium; D005682:Gadolinium