title: Independent Emergence of Resistance to Seven Chemical Classes of Fungicides in Botrytis cinerea.
abstract: Gray mold, caused by the fungal pathogen Botrytis cinerea, is one of the most destructive diseases of small fruit crops and control is largely dependent on the application of fungicides. As part of a region-wide resistance-monitoring program that investigated 1,890 B. cinerea isolates from 189 fields in 10 states of the United States, we identified seven isolates (0.4%) from five locations in four different states with unprecedented resistance to all seven Fungicide Resistance Action Committee (FRAC) codes with single-site modes of action including FRAC 1, 2, 7, 9, 11, 12, and 17 registered in the United States for gray mold control. Resistance to thiophanate-methyl, iprodione, boscalid, pyraclostrobin, and fenhexamid was based on target gene mutations that conferred E198A and F200Y in β-tubulin, I365N/S in Bos1, H272R/Y in SdhB, G143A in Cytb, and T63I and F412S in Erg27. Isolates were grouped into MDR1 and MDR1h phenotypes based on sensitivity to fludioxonil and variations in transcription factor mrr1. MDR1h isolates had a previously described 3-bp deletion at position 497 in mrr1. Expression of ABC transporter atrB was increased in MDR1 isolates but highest in MDR1h isolates. None of the isolates with seven single resistances (SR) had identical nucleotide variations in target genes, indicating that they emerged independently. Multifungicide resistance phenotypes did not exhibit significant fitness penalties for the parameters used in this study, but MDR1h isolates produced more sclerotia at low temperatures and exhibited increased sensitivity to salt stress. In this study we show that current resistance management strategies have not been able to prevent the geographically independent development of resistance to all seven site-specific fungicides currently registered for gray mold control in the United States and document the presence of MDR1h in North America.
authors.affiliation: First, second, third, and fourth authors: School of Agricultural, Forest, & Environmental Sciences, Clemson University, Clemson, SC 29634; and first author: Instituto de Hortofruticultura Subtropical y Mediterránea "La Mayora"-Universidad de Málaga-Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (IHSM-UMA-CSIC), Dept. de Microbiología, Campus de Teatinos, 29071 Málaga, Spain.
authors.forename: Dolores
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Fernández-Ortuño
authors.forename: Anja
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Grabke
authors.forename: Xingpeng
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Li
authors.forename: Guido
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Schnabel
mesh_terms: D018528:ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters / Q000235:genetics; D019943:Amino Acid Substitution; D020171:Botrytis / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics / Q000502:physiology*; D025141:Drug Resistance, Fungal / Q000235:genetics*; D031985:Fragaria / Q000382:microbiology*; D005656:Fungal Proteins / Q000235:genetics*; D005659:Fungicides, Industrial / Q000494:pharmacology; D009154:Mutation; D025282:Mycelium; D010641:Phenotype; D010935:Plant Diseases / Q000382:microbiology*; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA; D014404:Tubulin / Q000235:genetics; D014481:United States
chemical_list: D018528:ATP-Binding Cassette Transporters; D005656:Fungal Proteins; D005659:Fungicides, Industrial; D014404:Tubulin