title: Evaluation of impact-induced traumatic brain injury in the Göttingen Minipig using two input modes.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Two novel injury devices were used to characterize impact-induced traumatic brain injury (TBI). One imparts pure translation, and the other produces combined translation and rotation. The objective of this study was to evaluate the neuropathology associated with two injury devices using proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy (1H-MRS) to quantify metabolic changes and immunohistochemistry (IHC) to evaluate axonal damage in the corpus callosum.
  
  
  METHODS
  Young adult female Göttingen minipigs were exposed to impact-induced TBI with either the translation-input injury device or the combined-input injury device (n=11/group). Sham animals were treated identically except for the injury event (n=3). The minipigs underwent 1H-MRS scans prior to injury (baseline), approximately 1 h after injury, and 24 h post injury, at which point the brains were extracted for IHC. Metabolites of interest include glutamate (Glu), glutamine (Gln), N-acetylaspartate (NAA), N-acetylaspartylglutamate (NAAG), and γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA). Repeated measures analysis of variance with a least significant difference post hoc test were used to compare the three time points. IHC was performed on paraffin-embedded sections of the corpus callosum with light and heavy neurofilament antibodies. Stained pixel percentages were compared between shams and 24-h survival animals.
  
  
  RESULTS
  For the translation-input group (27.5-70.1 g), 16 significant metabolite differences were found. Three of these include a significant increase in Gln, both 1 h and 24 h postinjury, and an increase in GABA 24 h after injury. For the combined-input group (40.1-95.9 g; 1,014.5-3,814.9 rad/s2; 7.2-10.8 rad/s), 20 significant metabolite differences were found. Three of these include a significant increase in Glu, an increase in the ratio Glu/Gln, and an increase in the ratio Glu/NAAG 24 h after injury. The IHC analysis revealed significant increases in light and heavy neurofilament for both groups 24 h after injury.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Only five metabolite differences were similar between the input modes, most of which are related to inflammation or myelin disruption. The observed metabolite differences indicate important dissimilarities. For the translation-input group, an increase in Gln and GABA suggests a response in the GABA shunt system. For the combined-input group, an increase in Glu, Glu/Gln, and Glu/NAAG suggests glutamate excitotoxicity. Importantly, both of these input modes lead to similar light and heavy neurofilament damage, which indicates axonal disruption. Identifying neuropathological changes that are unique to different injury mechanisms is critical in defining the complexity of TBI and can lead to improved prevention strategies and the development of effective drug therapies.
authors.affiliation: a Virginia Tech-Wake Forest University, School of Biomedical Engineering and Sciences, Center for Injury Biomechanics, Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State University , Blacksburg , Virginia.
authors.forename: Elizabeth M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Fievisohn
authors.forename: Venkata Siva Sai Sujith
authors.initials: VS
authors.lastname: Sajja
authors.forename: Pamela J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Vandevord
authors.forename: Warren N
authors.initials: WN
authors.lastname: Hardy
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001224:Aspartic Acid / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000378:metabolism; D001930:Brain Injuries / Q000209:etiology* / Q000378:metabolism*; D004151:Dipeptides / Q000378:metabolism; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D005260:Female; D018698:Glutamic Acid / Q000378:metabolism; D005973:Glutamine / Q000378:metabolism; D006801:Humans; D013552:Swine; D013556:Swine, Miniature; D005680:gamma-Aminobutyric Acid / Q000378:metabolism
chemical_list: D004151:Dipeptides; D005973:Glutamine; C027172:isospaglumic acid; D001224:Aspartic Acid; D018698:Glutamic Acid; D005680:gamma-Aminobutyric Acid; C000179:N-acetylaspartate
keywords: immunohistochemistry; minipig; proton magnetic resonance spectroscopy; traumatic brain injury