title: Objective breast volume, shape and surface area assessment: a systematic review of breast measurement methods.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There are many methods of measuring the breast and their clinical applications are well described in the literature. However, there has been no attempt to compare these various methods to allow the user to have a broad overview of the subject. The authors have attempted to summarise all the available methods to measure the breast in this article to provide a useful reference for all.
  
  
  METHODS
  A comprehensive literature search of PubMed was performed, and the resulting articles were screened and reviewed. The data regarding the methods' mechanism, reliability, time and cost were evaluated and compared.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 74 articles dating from 1970 to 2013 were included in this study. All of the methods can be classified into those that measure (1) volume, (2) shape and (3) surface area. Each category consists of several methods that work through different mechanisms and they vary in their reliability and feasibility. Based on their mechanism, the volume measurement methods were further grouped into the natural shape methods, the stereological method, the geometrical methods and the mathematical modelling method.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  More objective breast evaluation can be achieved if all three dimensions (volume, shape and surface area) are considered. In the volume measurements, 3D modelling and the MRI are the most reliable tools. Linear measurement (geometry) and mathematical modelling are less accurate but are more economical. In the shape measurements, besides the traditional linear measurement, 3D methods that can deliver colour-coded maps and Swanson's 2D photographic measurement system are capable of depicting and tracking breast shape changes after surgery. Although the surface area metric has not been used extensively, it has potential in clinical and research applications.
  
  
  METHODS
  This journal requires that authors assign a level of evidence to each article. For a full description of these Evidence-Based Medicine ratings, please refer to the Table of Contents or the online Instructions to Authors www.springer.com/00266.
authors.affiliation: Department of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Shanghai Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai JiaoTong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, China.
authors.forename: Wenjing
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Xi
authors.forename: Aurelia Trisliana
authors.initials: AT
authors.lastname: Perdanasari
authors.forename: Yeesiang
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Ong
authors.forename: Sheng
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Han
authors.forename: Peiru
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Min
authors.forename: Weijie
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Su
authors.forename: Shaoqing
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Feng
authors.forename: Lucrezia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Pacchioni
authors.forename: Yi Xin
authors.initials: YX
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.forename: Davide
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Lazzeri
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D059925:Anatomic Landmarks; D000886:Anthropometry / Q000379:methods*; D001940:Breast / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology; D003720:Densitometry / Q000379:methods; D019317:Evidence-Based Medicine; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging / Q000379:methods