title: Age and gender differences in time to collision at braking from the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Forward collision warning (FCW) is an active safety system that aims to mitigate the effect of forward collisions by warning the driver of objects in front of the vehicle. Success of FCW relies on how drivers react to the alerts. Drivers who receive too many warnings that they deem as unnecessary-that is, nuisance alarms-may grow to distrust and turn the system off. To reduce the perception of nuisance alarms, FCW systems can be tailored to individual driving styles, but these driving styles must first be characterized. The objective of this study was to characterize differences in braking behavior between age and gender groups in car-following scenarios using data from the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study.
  
  
  METHODS
  The data source for this study was the 100-Car Naturalistic Driving Study, which recorded the driving of 108 primary drivers for approximately a year. Braking behavior was characterized in terms of time to collision (TTC) at brake application, a common metric used in the design of warning thresholds of FCW. Because of the large volume of data analyzed, the TTC at which drivers braked during car-following situations was collected via an automated search algorithm. The minimum TTC for each vehicle speed 10 mph increment from 10 mph to 80 mph was recorded for each driver. Mixed model analysis of variance was used to examine the differences between age and gender groups.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In total, 527,861 brake applications contained in 11,503 trips were analyzed. Differences in TTC at braking were statistically significant for age and gender (P<.01 for both cases). Males age 18-20 (n=7) had the lowest average minimum TTC at braking of 2.5±0.8 s, and females age 31-50 (n=6) had the highest average minimum TTC at braking of 6.4±0.9 s. On average, women (n=32) braked at a TTC 1.3 s higher than men (n=52). Age was a statistically significant factor for TTC at braking between participants under 30 (n=42) and participants over 30 (n=42), with the latter braking 1.7 s on average before the former. No statistical significance was found between ages 18-20 (n=15) and 21-30 (n=27) or between ages 31-50 (n=23) and 50+(n=19).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There are clear statistical differences in TTC at braking for both gender and those over 30 vs. those under 30. Designers of FCW systems can use the data found in this study to tailor alert timings to the target demographic of a vehicle when designing forward collision warning systems. Appropriate alert timings for FCW systems will maximize effectiveness in collision reduction and mitigation.
authors.affiliation: a Virginia Tech , Blacksburg , Virginia.
authors.forename: Jade
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Montgomery
authors.forename: Kristofer D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Kusano
authors.forename: Hampton C
authors.initials: HC
authors.lastname: Gabler
mesh_terms: D000063:Accidents, Traffic / Q000517:prevention & control* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D001334:Automobile Driving / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D004867:Equipment Design; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011482:Protective Devices; D011930:Reaction Time; D012737:Sex Factors; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: active safety; driver behavior; forward collision warning; old drivers; young drivers