title: The relative and absolute frequencies of angiosperm sexual systems: dioecy, monoecy, gynodioecy, and an updated online database.
abstract: •
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Separating sexual function between different individuals carries risks, especially for sedentary organisms. Nevertheless, many land plants have unisexual gametophytes or sporophytes. This study brings together data and theoretical insights from research over the past 20 yr on the occurrence and frequency of plant sexual systems, focusing on the flowering plants.•
  
  
  METHODS
  A list of genera with dioecious species, along with other information, is made available (http://www.umsl.edu/∼renners/). Frequencies of other sexual systems are tabulated, and data on the genetic regulation, ecological context, and theoretical benefits of dioecy reviewed.•
  
  
  RESULTS
  There are 15600 dioecious angiosperms in 987 genera and 175 families, or 5-6% of the total species (7% of genera, 43% of families), with somewhere between 871 to 5000 independent origins of dioecy. Some 43% of all dioecious angiosperms are in just 34 entirely dioecious clades, arguing against a consistent negative influence of dioecy on diversification. About 31.6% of the dioecious species are wind-pollinated, compared with 5.5-6.4% of nondioecious angiosperms. Also, 1.4% of all angiosperm genera contain dioecious and monoecious species, while 0.4% contain dioecious and gynodioecious species. All remaining angiosperm sexual systems are rare. Chromosomal sex determination is known from 40 species; environmentally modulated sex allocation is common. Few phylogenetic studies have focused on the evolution of dioecy.•
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The current focus is on the genetic mechanisms underlying unisexual flowers and individuals. Mixed strategies of sexual and vegetative dispersal, together with plants' sedentary life style, may often favor polygamous systems in which sexually inconstant individuals can persist. Nevertheless, there are huge entirely dioecious clades of tropical woody plants.
authors.affiliation: Systematic Botany and Mycology, University of Munich, 80638 Munich, Germany.
authors.forename: Susanne S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Renner
mesh_terms: D005075:Biological Evolution; D032461:Chromosomes, Plant; D035264:Flowers / Q000033:anatomy & histology / Q000502:physiology*; D019684:Magnoliopsida / Q000235:genetics* / Q000502:physiology; D010802:Phylogeny; D054817:Pollination; D057945:Self-Fertilization
keywords: angiosperm; dioecy; gynodioecy; monoecy; polygamy; sex chromosomes; sexual plasticity; sexual system