title: New insights into domestication of carrot from root transcriptome analyses.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Understanding the molecular basis of domestication can provide insights into the processes of rapid evolution and crop improvement. Here we demonstrated the processes of carrot domestication and identified genes under selection based on transcriptome analyses.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The root transcriptomes of widely differing cultivated and wild carrots were sequenced. A method accounting for sequencing errors was introduced to optimize SNP (single nucleotide polymorphism) discovery. 11,369 SNPs were identified. Of these, 622 (out of 1000 tested SNPs) were validated and used to genotype a large set of cultivated carrot, wild carrot and other wild Daucus carota subspecies, primarily of European origin. Phylogenetic analysis indicated that eastern carrot may originate from Western Asia and western carrot may be selected from eastern carrot. Different wild D. carota subspecies may have contributed to the domestication of cultivated carrot. Genetic diversity was significantly reduced in western cultivars, probably through bottlenecks and selection. However, a high proportion of genetic diversity (more than 85% of the genetic diversity in wild populations) is currently retained in western cultivars. Model simulation indicated high and asymmetric gene flow from wild to cultivated carrots, spontaneously and/or by introgression breeding. Nevertheless, high genetic differentiation exists between cultivated and wild carrots (Fst = 0.295) showing the strong effects of selection. Expression patterns differed radically for some genes between cultivated and wild carrot roots which may be related to changes in root traits. The up-regulation of water-channel-protein gene expression in cultivars might be involved in changing water content and transport in roots. The activated expression of carotenoid-binding-protein genes in cultivars could be related to the high carotenoid accumulation in roots. The silencing of allergen-protein-like genes in cultivated carrot roots suggested strong human selection to reduce allergy. These results suggest that regulatory changes of gene expressions may have played a predominant role in domestication.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Western carrots may originate from eastern carrots. The reduction in genetic diversity in western cultivars due to domestication bottleneck/selection may have been offset by introgression from wild carrot. Differential gene expression patterns between cultivated and wild carrot roots may be a signature of strong selection for favorable cultivation traits.
authors.affiliation: Plant Ecology and Phytochemistry, Institute of Biology Leiden, Leiden University, PO Box 9505, Leiden 2300RA, The Netherlands. rong_jun@hotmail.com.
authors.forename: Jun
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Rong
authors.forename: Youri
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Lammers
authors.forename: Jared L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Strasburg
authors.forename: Natasha S
authors.initials: NS
authors.lastname: Schidlo
authors.forename: Yavuz
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Ariyurek
authors.forename: Tom J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: de Jong
authors.forename: Peter G L
authors.initials: PG
authors.lastname: Klinkhamer
authors.forename: Marinus J M
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Smulders
authors.forename: Klaas
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Vrieling
mesh_terms: D018552:Daucus carota / Q000235:genetics*; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D020869:Gene Expression Profiling; D017343:Genes, Plant / Q000235:genetics; D005819:Genetic Markers / Q000235:genetics; D005838:Genotype; D018517:Plant Roots / Q000235:genetics*; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide / Q000235:genetics; D012641:Selection, Genetic
chemical_list: D005819:Genetic Markers