title: Associations between heavy-vehicle driver compensation methods, fatigue-related driving behavior, and sleepiness.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  There has been growing recognition that broader economic and organizational factors play a role in creating work environments that facilitate high-risk driving behavior. This study investigates the association between compensation methods for drivers, fatigue-related driving behavior, and sleepiness among Australian heavy-vehicle drivers. Specifically, we hypothesized that piece-rate compensation methods linked to performance outcomes would be associated with greater levels of fatigue-related driving behaviors and sleepiness.
  
  
  METHODS
  We examined data from a random sample of 346 long-haul heavy-vehicle drivers who had not been involved in a crash. A 40-min interview was conducted that elicited information regarding driver demographics, truck characteristics, and compensation arrangements. Specific details about drivers' behavior on their most recent trip including load(s) carried, distances driven, hours driven, rest breaks, and hours of sleep on the previous night were taken. The interview also included a standardized assessment of sleepiness using the Epworth Sleepiness Scale (ESS).
  
  
  RESULTS
  A multivariate analysis of covariance demonstrated a significant multivariate effect for compensation methods across the combined, fatigue-related driving behavior dependent variables, F (10, 676)=2.80, p<.01. Between-subject effects demonstrated significant association between compensation methods and 4 of 5 fatigue-related variables under study, including kilometers driven per day, F (2, 340)=7.75, p<.001, hours driven per day, F (2, 341)=2.64, p<.05, total hours worked per week, F (2, 340)=5.27, p<.01, and mean driving time between breaks, F (2, 341)=4.45, p<.05. Post hoc tests revealed that piece-rate compensation methods were associated with higher levels of fatigue-related driving than non-piece-rate methods. Follow-up analysis also revealed higher caffeine and amphetamines use among piece-rate drivers for the purpose of staying awake while driving. Despite this, no association between compensation methods and sleepiness were revealed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  RESULTS confirmed that performance-based compensation methods are associated with work practices that may exacerbate driving behaviors associated with fatigue. Despite this finding, however, performance-based compensation methods were not associated with higher levels of sleepiness. This highlights the presence of potential differences in self-selection, operational, or fatigue management practices that may be common to drivers paid under various methods. Implications of these results for safety policy and future safety research within the heavy-vehicle industry are discussed.
authors.affiliation: a Monash University Accident Research Centre (MUARC), Monash Injury Research Institute, Monash University , Melbourne , Australia.
authors.forename: Jason
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Thompson
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Stevenson
mesh_terms: D000063:Accidents, Traffic / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D001315:Australia; D001334:Automobile Driving / Q000523:psychology* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D004651:Employment / Q000191:economics* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D005221:Fatigue / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D008875:Middle Aged; D018986:Motor Vehicles / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D036301:Qualitative Research; D012309:Risk-Taking; D012890:Sleep; D013997:Time Factors; D014851:Wakefulness
keywords: compensation; driving; fatigue; heavy vehicles; payment; safety