title: Gender differences in negative reinforcement smoking expectancies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Previous research suggests that females may be more motivated to smoke for negative reinforcement (NR) than males. However, it remains unclear whether gender differences in smoking outcome expectancies for negative smoking reinforcement-an important theoretical and clinical target defined as beliefs that smoking alleviates negative affect-exist above and beyond gender differences in depression and/or other outcome expectancies.
  
  
  METHODS
  Relations between gender and negative smoking reinforcement expectancies were examined in two independent samples. Sample 1 consisted of non-treatment seeking daily smokers (Male n = 188; Female n = 91) recruited from Southern California (49.5% Black, 32.2% Caucasian, and 18.3% other race/ethnicity). Sample 2 consisted of treatment seeking daily smokers (Male n = 257; Female n = 237) in Northern Florida and Vermont (10.7% Black, 82.9% Caucasian, and 6.4% other).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Females (vs. males) reported stronger NR smoking expectancies with and without statistically controlling for nicotine dependence, other smoking expectancies, and anxiety and depression in both samples (βs = .06 to .14, ps = .06 to < .001).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Beliefs that smoking alleviates negative affect may reflect a gender-specific etiological process disproportionately prominent in women. Enhancing ability to cope with negative affect without smoking or challenge NR expectancies may be particularly important for cessation treatment in women.
authors.affiliation: Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA; rpang@usc.edu.
authors.forename: Raina D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Pang
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Houston, Houston, TX; Department of Behavioral Science, University of Texas MD Anderson Cancer Center, Houston, TX;
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Zvolensky
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, Florida State University, Tallahassee, FL;
authors.forename: Norman B
authors.initials: NB
authors.lastname: Schmidt
authors.affiliation: Department of Preventive Medicine, University of Southern California Keck School of Medicine, Los Angeles, CA; Department of Psychology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, CA.
authors.forename: Adam M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Leventhal
mesh_terms: D000223:Adaptation, Psychological; D000328:Adult; D001007:Anxiety / Q000523:psychology; D001294:Attitude to Health; D002140:California; D003863:Depression / Q000523:psychology; D005260:Female; D005431:Florida; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009042:Motivation; D012054:Reinforcement, Psychology; D012737:Sex Factors; D012907:Smoking / Q000523:psychology*; D016540:Smoking Cessation; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014029:Tobacco Use Disorder; D014707:Vermont; D055815:Young Adult