title: Pathological role for exocytotic glutamate release from astrocytes in hepatic encephalopathy.
abstract: Liver failure can lead to generalized hyperammonemia, which is thought to be the underlying cause of hepatic encephalopathy. This neuropsychiatric syndrome is accompanied by functional changes of astrocytes. These glial cells enter ammonia-induced self-amplifying cycle characterized by brain oedema, oxidative and osmotic stress that causes modification of proteins and RNA. Consequently, protein expression and function are affected, including that of glutamine synthetase and plasmalemmal glutamate transporters, leading to glutamate excitotoxicity; Ca(2+)-dependent exocytotic glutamate release from astrocytes contributes to this extracellular glutamate overload.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurobiology, Center for Glial Biology in Medicine, Atomic Force Microscopy & Nanotechnology Laboratories, Civitan International Research Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA ; Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia.
authors.forename: Vedrana
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Montana
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Life Sciences, The University of Manchester, Manchester, M13 9PT, UK ; Achucarro Center for Neuroscience, IKERBASQUE, Basque Foundation for Science, 48011 Bilbao, Spain ; University of Nizhny Novgorod, Nizhny Novgorod 603022, Russia.
authors.forename: Alexei
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Verkhratsky
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurobiology, Center for Glial Biology in Medicine, Atomic Force Microscopy & Nanotechnology Laboratories, Civitan International Research Center, Evelyn F. McKnight Brain Institute, University of Alabama, Birmingham, AL 35294, USA ; Department of Biotechnology, University of Rijeka, 51000 Rijeka, Croatia.
authors.forename: Vladimir
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Parpura
keywords: Astrocytes; exocytosis; glutamate release; hepatic encephalopathy.