title: Role of functional imaging in the development and refinement of invasive neuromodulation for psychiatric disorders.
abstract: Deep brain stimulation (DBS) is emerging as a powerful tool for the alleviation of targeted symptoms in treatment-resistant neuropsychiatric disorders. Despite the expanding use of neuropsychiatric DBS, the mechanisms responsible for its effects are only starting to be elucidated. Several modalities such as quantitative electroencephalography as well a intraoperative recordings have been utilized to attempt to understand the underpinnings of this new treatment modality, but functional imaging appears to offer several unique advantages. Functional imaging techniques like positron emission tomography, single photon emission computed tomography and functional magnetic resonance imaging have been used to examine the effects of focal DBS on activity in a distributed neural network. These investigations are critical for advancing the field of invasive neuromodulation in a safe and effective manner, particularly in terms of defining the neuroanatomical targets and refining the stimulation protocols. The purpose of this review is to summarize the current functional neuroimaging findings from neuropsychiatric DBS implantation for three disorders: treatment-resistant depression, obsessive-compulsive disorder, and Tourette syndrome. All of the major targets will be discussed (Nucleus accumbens, anterior limb of internal capsule, subcallosal cingulate, Subthalamic nucleus, Centromedial nucleus of the thalamus-Parafasicular complex, frontal pole, and dorsolateral prefrontal cortex). We will also address some apparent inconsistencies within this literature, and suggest potential future directions for this promising area.
authors.affiliation: Nolan R Williams, Joseph J Taylor, Kayla Lamb, Colleen A Hanlon, E Baron Short, Mark S George, Brain Stimulation Laboratory, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States.
authors.forename: Nolan R
authors.initials: NR
authors.lastname: Williams
authors.affiliation: Nolan R Williams, Joseph J Taylor, Kayla Lamb, Colleen A Hanlon, E Baron Short, Mark S George, Brain Stimulation Laboratory, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States.
authors.forename: Joseph J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Taylor
authors.affiliation: Nolan R Williams, Joseph J Taylor, Kayla Lamb, Colleen A Hanlon, E Baron Short, Mark S George, Brain Stimulation Laboratory, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States.
authors.forename: Kayla
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Lamb
authors.affiliation: Nolan R Williams, Joseph J Taylor, Kayla Lamb, Colleen A Hanlon, E Baron Short, Mark S George, Brain Stimulation Laboratory, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States.
authors.forename: Colleen A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Hanlon
authors.affiliation: Nolan R Williams, Joseph J Taylor, Kayla Lamb, Colleen A Hanlon, E Baron Short, Mark S George, Brain Stimulation Laboratory, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States.
authors.forename: E Baron
authors.initials: EB
authors.lastname: Short
authors.affiliation: Nolan R Williams, Joseph J Taylor, Kayla Lamb, Colleen A Hanlon, E Baron Short, Mark S George, Brain Stimulation Laboratory, Medical University of South Carolina, Charleston, SC 29425, United States.
authors.forename: Mark S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: George
keywords: Cortical stimulation; Deep brain stimulation; Functional magnetic resonance imaging; Functional neuroimaging; Nuclear imaging