title: Immersion freezing of supermicron mineral dust particles: freezing results, testing different schemes for describing ice nucleation, and ice nucleation active site densities.
abstract: Ice nucleation on mineral dust particles is known to be an important process in the atmosphere. To accurately implement ice nucleation on mineral dust particles in atmospheric simulations, a suitable theory or scheme is desirable to describe laboratory freezing data in atmospheric models. In the following, we investigated ice nucleation by supermicron mineral dust particles [kaolinite and Arizona Test Dust (ATD)] in the immersion mode. The median freezing temperature for ATD was measured to be approximately -30 °C compared with approximately -36 °C for kaolinite. The freezing results were then used to test four different schemes previously used to describe ice nucleation in atmospheric models. In terms of ability to fit the data (quantified by calculating the reduced chi-squared values), the following order was found for ATD (from best to worst): active site, pdf-α, deterministic, single-α. For kaolinite, the following order was found (from best to worst): active site, deterministic, pdf-α, single-α. The variation in the predicted median freezing temperature per decade change in the cooling rate for each of the schemes was also compared with experimental results from other studies. The deterministic model predicts the median freezing temperature to be independent of cooling rate, while experimental results show a weak dependence on cooling rate. The single-α, pdf-α, and active site schemes all agree with the experimental results within roughly a factor of 2. On the basis of our results and previous results where different schemes were tested, the active site scheme is recommended for describing the freezing of ATD and kaolinite particles. We also used our ice nucleation results to determine the ice nucleation active site (INAS) density for the supermicron dust particles tested. Using the data, we show that the INAS densities of supermicron kaolinite and ATD particles studied here are smaller than the INAS densities of submicron kaolinite and ATD particles previously reported in the literature.
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1.
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Wheeler
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1.
authors.forename: R H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Mason
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Steunenberg
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wagstaff
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Chou
authors.affiliation: Department of Chemistry, University of British Columbia, 2036 Main Mall, Vancouver, BC, Canada V6T 1Z1.
authors.forename: A K
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Bertram