title: Effects of functionally asexual reproduction on quantitative genetic variation in the evening primroses (Oenothera, Onagraceae).
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  It has long been predicted that a loss of sexual reproduction leads to decreased heritable variation within populations and increased differentiation between populations. Despite an abundance of theory, there are few empirical tests of how sex affects genetic variation in phenotypic traits, especially for plants. Here we test whether repeated losses of two critical components of sex (recombination and segregation) in the evening primroses (Oenothera L., Onagraceae) affect quantitative genetic variation within and between populations.
  
  
  METHODS
  We sampled multiple genetic families from 3-5 populations from each of eight Oenothera species, which represented four independent transitions between sexual reproduction and a functionally asexual genetic system called "permanent translocation heterozygosity." We used quantitative genetics methods to partition genetic variation within and between populations for eight plant traits related to growth, leaf physiology, flowering, and resistance to herbivores.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Heritability was, on average, 74% higher in sexual Oenothera populations than in functionally asexual populations, with plant growth rate, specific leaf area, and the percentage of leaf water content showing the strongest differences. By contrast, genetic differentiation among populations was 2.8× higher in functionally asexual vs. sexual Oenothera species. This difference was particularly strong for specific leaf area. Sexual populations tended to exhibit higher genetic correlations among traits, but this difference was weakly supported.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results support the prediction that sexual reproduction maintains higher genetic variation within populations, which may facilitate adaptive evolution. We also found partial support for the prediction that a loss of sex leads to greater population differentiation, which may elevate speciation rates.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of Toronto-Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L 1C6, Canada.
authors.forename: Ryan M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Godfrey
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of Toronto-Mississauga, Mississauga, Ontario, L5L 1C6, Canada.
authors.forename: Marc T J
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Johnson
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D060832:Apomixis; D005075:Biological Evolution; D014644:Genetic Variation; D060434:Herbivory; D006579:Heterozygote; D031665:Oenothera biennis / Q000235:genetics* / Q000502:physiology; D010312:Parthenogenesis; D010641:Phenotype; D012100:Reproduction, Asexual
keywords: Muller’s ratchet; apomixis; coefficient of genetic variance; evolution of sex; evolvability; parthenogenesis