title: Non-invasive brain stimulation therapy in multiple sclerosis: a review of tDCS, rTMS and ECT results.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Multiple sclerosis (MS) is a disabling neurological disorder presenting a variety of symptoms which are hard to control by actual drug regimens. Non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS) techniques have been investigated in the past years for the improvement of several neurologic and psychiatric disorders.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  Here, we review the application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS), transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS, iTBS) and electroconvulsive therapy (ECT) in MS patients.
  
  
  METHODS
  Articles were searched in common literature databases. Crosslinks were reviewed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  ECT was shown to be efficacious for the treatment of severe psychiatric disorders in 21 case reports. The results of tDCS and TMS for the treatment of depressive symptoms, fatigue, tactile sensory deficit, pain, motor performance, and spasticity were assessed in several studies and showed mixed results.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Overall, data for the treatment of MS with NIBS is sparse regarding TMS and tDCS. Treatment of severe psychiatric disorders with ECT is only reported in single cases. More studies are needed to elucidate the potential role of NIBS in MS treatment.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Henri Mondor Hospital, Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, France; Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Ludwig-Maximilian University Munich, Munich, Germany. Electronic address: Ulrich.palm@med.uni-muenchen.de.
authors.forename: Ulrich
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Palm
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Henri Mondor Hospital, Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, France; EA 4391, Nerve Excitability and Therapeutic Team, Faculty of Medicine, Paris Est Créteil University, Créteil, France.
authors.forename: Samar S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Ayache
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Ludwig-Maximilian University Munich, Munich, Germany.
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Padberg
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Henri Mondor Hospital, Assistance Publique - Hôpitaux de Paris, Créteil, France; EA 4391, Nerve Excitability and Therapeutic Team, Faculty of Medicine, Paris Est Créteil University, Créteil, France.
authors.forename: Jean-Pascal
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Lefaucheur
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000502:physiology*; D003863:Depression; D004565:Electroconvulsive Therapy; D006801:Humans; D001523:Mental Disorders / Q000150:complications / Q000628:therapy; D009103:Multiple Sclerosis / Q000150:complications / Q000628:therapy*; D065908:Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation; D050781:Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation
keywords: Electroconvulsive therapy; Multiple sclerosis; Non-invasive brain stimulation; Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation; Theta burst stimulation; Transcranial direct current stimulation; Treatment