Microbes in Beach Sands: Integrating Environment, Ecology and Public Health.
Beach sand is a habitat that supports many microbes, including viruses, bacteria, fungi and protozoa (micropsammon). The apparently inhospitable conditions of beach sand environments belie the thriving communities found there. Physical factors, such as water availability and protection from insolation; biological factors, such as competition, predation, and biofilm formation; and nutrient availability all contribute to the characteristics of the micropsammon. Sand microbial communities include autochthonous species/phylotypes indigenous to the environment. Allochthonous microbes, including fecal indicator bacteria (FIB) and waterborne pathogens, are deposited via waves, runoff, air, or animals. The fate of these microbes ranges from death, to transient persistence and/or replication, to establishment of thriving populations (naturalization) and integration in the autochthonous community. Transport of the micropsammon within the habitat occurs both horizontally across the beach, and vertically from the sand surface and ground water table, as well as at various scales including interstitial flow within sand pores, sediment transport for particle-associated microbes, and the large-scale processes of wave action and terrestrial runoff. The concept of beach sand as a microbial habitat and reservoir of FIB and pathogens has begun to influence our thinking about human health effects associated with sand exposure and recreational water use. A variety of pathogens have been reported from beach sands, and recent epidemiology studies have found some evidence of health risks associated with sand exposure. Persistent or replicating populations of FIB and enteric pathogens have consequences for watershed/beach management strategies and regulatory standards for safe beaches. This review summarizes our understanding of the community structure, ecology, fate, transport, and public health implications of microbes in beach sand. It concludes with recommendations for future work in this vastly under-studied area.
Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA.
Richard
R
Whitman
Department of Integrative Biology, University of South Florida, SCA 110, 4202 E. Fowler Ave. Tampa, FL 33620, USA.
Valerie J
VJ
Harwood
Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6.
Thomas A
TA
Edge
Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA.
Meredith
M
Nevers
Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA.
Muruleedhara
M
Byappanahalli
Environmental Health Division, Ottawa County Health Department, 12251 James Street, Suite 200, Holland, MI, 49424, USA ; Remediation and Redevelopment Division, Department of Environmental Quality, State of Michigan, 525 W. Allegan St., Lansing, MI 48909. USA.
Kannappan
K
Vijayavel
Reference Unit for Systemic Infections and Zoonosis, Department of Infectious Diseases, National Institute of Health Dr. Ricardo Jorge, Av. Padre Cruz 1649-016 Lisboa, Portugal.
João
J
Brandão
Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA.
Michael J
MJ
Sadowsky
Department of Biology & Institute for Great Lakes Research, Central Michigan University, Mount Pleasant, MI 48859.
Elizabeth Wheeler
EW
Alm
Canada Centre for Inland Waters, Environment Canada, 867 Lakeshore Road, Burlington, Ontario, Canada L7R 4A6.
Allan
A
Crowe
Environmental Health Sciences Department, Fielding School of Public Health, University of California Los Angeles, California 90024, USA.
Donna
D
Ferguson
Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA.
Zhongfu
Z
Ge
Woods Hole Oceanographic Institute, Woods Hole, MA 02543, USA.
Elizabeth
E
Halliday
Department of Public Health, City of Racine, 730 Washington Avenue, Room 109, Racine, WI 53403, USA.
Julie
J
Kinzelman
Environmental Research and Innovation Centre, University of Wisconsin - Oshkosh, 800 Algoma Boulevard, Oshkosh, WI 54901, USA.
Greg
G
Kleinheinz
Great Lakes Science Center, United States Geological Survey, 1100 N. Mineral Springs Road, Porter, IN 46304, USA.
Kasia
K
Przybyla-Kelly
Department of Soil, Water, and Climate, BioTechnology Institute, University of Minnesota, St Paul, Minnesota 55108, USA.
Christopher
C
Staley
Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Western Ontario, 1151 Richmond St., London, ON N6A 3K7, Canada.
Zachery
Z
Staley
Department of Civil, Architectural, and Environmental Engineering, University of Miami, 1251 Memorial Drive, McArthur Building Room 252, Coral Gables, FL 33146, USA and, Oceans and Human Health Center, University of Miami Rosenstiel, School of Marine and Atmospheric Science, 4600 Rickenbacker Causeway, Miami, FL 33149, USA.
Helena M
HM
Solo-Gabriele
beach sand; fate; fecal indicator bacteria; pathogens; psammon; water quality