title: Flowering dynamics and pollinator visitation of oilseed echium (Echium plantagineum).
abstract: Echium (Echium plantagineum L.) is an alternative oilseed crop in summer-wet temperate regions that provides floral resources to pollinators. Its seed oil is rich in omega-3 fatty acids, such as stearidonic acid, which is desired highly by the cosmetic industry. Seeds were sown in field plots over three years in western Minnesota in spring (early-sown) or early summer (late-sown), and flower abundance, pollinator visitation, and seed yields were studied. Initial flowering commenced 41 to 55 d after sowing, and anthesis duration (first flowering to harvest) was 34 to 70 d. Late sowing dates delayed anthesis, but increased the intensity of visitation by pollinators. Cumulative flower densities ranged from 1 to 4.5 billion ha-1. Flowers attracted numerous honey bees (Apis mellifera L.), as many as 35 per minute of observation, which represented about 50% of all insect visitors. Early-sown echium produced seed yields up to 750 kg ha-1, which were 2-29 times higher than those of late-sown echium. Early sowing of echium in Minnesota provides abundant floral resources for pollinators for up to two months and simultaneously produces seed yields whose profits rival those of corn (Zea mays L.).
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, North Central Soil Conservation Research Lab, Morris, Minnesota, United States of America.
authors.forename: Carrie A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Eberle
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, North Central Soil Conservation Research Lab, Morris, Minnesota, United States of America.
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Forcella
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, North Central Soil Conservation Research Lab, Morris, Minnesota, United States of America.
authors.forename: Russ
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Gesch
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, North Central Soil Conservation Research Lab, Morris, Minnesota, United States of America.
authors.forename: Sharon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Weyers
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, North Central Soil Conservation Research Lab, Morris, Minnesota, United States of America.
authors.forename: Dean
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Peterson
authors.affiliation: United States Department of Agriculture-Agricultural Research Service, North Central Soil Conservation Research Lab, Morris, Minnesota, United States of America.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Eklund
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001516:Bees / Q000502:physiology*; D018556:Crops, Agricultural / Q000191:economics / Q000254:growth & development; D036661:Echium / Q000502:physiology*; D035264:Flowers / Q000502:physiology*; D008910:Minnesota; D054817:Pollination / Q000502:physiology*; D012621:Seasons; D012639:Seeds / Q000254:growth & development*