title: Minimization of extracellular space as a driving force in prokaryote association and the origin of eukaryotes.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Internalization-based hypotheses of eukaryotic origin require close physical association of host and symbiont. Prior hypotheses of how these associations arose include chance, specific metabolic couplings between partners, and prey-predator/parasite interactions. Since these hypotheses were proposed, it has become apparent that mixed-species, close-association assemblages (biofilms) are widespread and predominant components of prokaryotic ecology. Which forces drove prokaryotes to evolve the ability to form these assemblages are uncertain. Bacteria and archaea have also been found to form membrane-lined interconnections (nanotubes) through which proteins and RNA pass. These observations, combined with the structure of the nuclear envelope and an energetic benefit of close association (see below), lead us to propose a novel hypothesis of the driving force underlying prokaryotic close association and the origin of eukaryotes.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Respiratory proton transport does not alter external pH when external volume is effectively infinite. Close physical association decreases external volume. For small external volumes, proton transport decreases external pH, resulting in each transported proton increasing proton motor force to a greater extent. We calculate here that in biofilms this effect could substantially decrease how many protons need to be transported to achieve a given proton motor force. Based as it is solely on geometry, this energetic benefit would occur for all prokaryotes using proton-based respiration.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This benefit may be a driving force in biofilm formation. Under this hypothesis a very wide range of prokaryotic species combinations could serve as eukaryotic progenitors. We use this observation and the discovery of prokaryotic nanotubes to propose that eukaryotes arose from physically distinct, functionally specialized (energy factory, protein factory, DNA repository/RNA factory), obligatorily symbiotic prokaryotes in which the protein factory and DNA repository/RNA factory cells were coupled by nanotubes and the protein factory ultimately internalized the other two. This hypothesis naturally explains many aspects of eukaryotic physiology, including the nuclear envelope being a folded single membrane repeatedly pierced by membrane-bound tubules (the nuclear pores), suggests that species analogous or homologous to eukaryotic progenitors are likely unculturable as monocultures, and makes a large number of testable predictions.
  
  
  METHODS
  This article was reviewed by Purificación López-García and Toni Gabaldón.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Ohio University, Athens, OH 45701, USA. hooper@ohio.edu.
authors.forename: Scott L
authors.initials: SL
authors.lastname: Hooper
authors.forename: Helaine J
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Burstein
mesh_terms: D018441:Biofilms; D005075:Biological Evolution; D005057:Eukaryotic Cells / Q000502:physiology*; D014644:Genetic Variation; D056265:Microbial Interactions; D008954:Models, Biological; D011387:Prokaryotic Cells / Q000502:physiology*