title: Sex differences in genetic and environmental influences on educational attainment and income.
abstract: In many Western countries, women now reach educational levels comparable to men, although their income remains considerably lower. For the past decades, it has become increasingly clear that these measures of socio-economic status are influenced by genetic as well as environmental factors. Less is known about the relationship between education and income, and sex differences. The aim of this study was to explore genetic and environmental factors influencing education and income in a large cohort of young Norwegian twins, with special emphasis on gender differences. National register data on educational level and income were obtained for 7,710 twins (aged 29-41 years). Bivariate Cholesky models were applied to estimate qualitative and quantitative gender differences in genetic and environmental influences, the relative contribution of genetic and environmental factors to the correlation between education and income, and genetic correlations within and between sexes and phenotypes. The phenotypic correlation between educational level and income was 0.34 (0.32-0.39) for men and 0.45 (0.43-0.48) for women. An ACE model with both qualitative and quantitative sex differences fitted the data best. The genetic correlation between men and women (rg) was 0.66 (0.22-1.00) for educational attainment and 0.38 (0.01-0.75) for income, and between the two phenotypes 0.31 (0.08-0.52) for men and 0.72 (0.64-0.85) for women. Our results imply that, in relatively egalitarian societies with state-supported access to higher education and political awareness of gender equality, genetic factors may play an important role in explaining sex differences in the relationship between education and income.
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health,Norwegian Institute of Public Health,Oslo,Norway.
authors.forename: Ragnhild E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Orstavik
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health,Norwegian Institute of Public Health,Oslo,Norway.
authors.forename: Nikolai
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Czajkowski
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health,Norwegian Institute of Public Health,Oslo,Norway.
authors.forename: Espen
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Røysamb
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health,Norwegian Institute of Public Health,Oslo,Norway.
authors.forename: Gun Peggy
authors.initials: GP
authors.lastname: Knudsen
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health,Norwegian Institute of Public Health,Oslo,Norway.
authors.forename: Kristian
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Tambs
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health,Norwegian Institute of Public Health,Oslo,Norway.
authors.forename: Ted
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Reichborn-Kjennerud
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D004522:Educational Status; D005260:Female; D059647:Gene-Environment Interaction; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income; D008297:Male; D012737:Sex Factors; D014427:Twins / Q000235:genetics*