title: Detection and drivers of exposure and effects of pharmaceuticals in higher vertebrates.
abstract: Pharmaceuticals are highly bioactive compounds now known to be widespread environmental contaminants. However, research regarding exposure and possible effects in non-target higher vertebrate wildlife remains scarce. The fate and behaviour of most pharmaceuticals entering our environment via numerous pathways remain poorly characterized, and hence our conception and understanding of the risks posed to wild animals is equally constrained. The recent decimation of Asian vulture populations owing to a pharmaceutical (diclofenac) offers a notable example, because the exposure route (livestock carcasses) and the acute toxicity observed were completely unexpected. This case not only highlights the need for further research, but also the wider requirement for more considered and comprehensive 'ecopharmacovigilance'. We discuss known and potential high risk sources and pathways in terrestrial and freshwater ecosystems where pharmaceutical exposure in higher vertebrate wildlife, principally birds and mammals, may occur. We examine whether approaches taken within existing surveillance schemes (that commonly target established classes of persistent or bioaccumulative contaminants) and the risk assessment approaches currently used for pesticides are relevant to pharmaceuticals, and we highlight where new approaches may be required to assess pharmaceutical-related risk.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Ecology & Hydrology, Lancaster Environment Centre, Library Avenue, Bailrigg, Lancaster LA1 4AP, UK rfs@ceh.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Richard F
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: Shore
authors.affiliation: Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso, Caithness KW14 7JD, UK.
authors.forename: Mark A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Taggart
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecosystem and Public Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Calgary, 3280 Hospital Drive NW, Calgary, Alberta, Canada AB T2N 4Z6.
authors.forename: Judit
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Smits
authors.affiliation: Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC (CSIC, UCLM, JCCM), Ronda de Toledo s/n, 13005 Ciudad Real, Spain.
authors.forename: Rafael
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mateo
authors.affiliation: Working Dogs for Conservation, 52 Eustis Road, Three Forks, MT 59752, USA.
authors.forename: Ngaio L
authors.initials: NL
authors.lastname: Richards
authors.affiliation: Food and Environment Research Agency (FERA), Sand Hutton, York YO41 1LZ, UK.
authors.forename: Steve
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Fryday
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000633:toxicity*; D006801:Humans; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000737:chemistry*; D014714:Vertebrates
chemical_list: D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations
keywords: ecopharmacovigilance; emerging contaminants; environmental monitoring; risk assessment; sentinel species; wildlife toxicology