title: Avian scavengers and the threat from veterinary pharmaceuticals.
abstract: Veterinary use of the non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drug diclofenac on domesticated ungulates caused populations of resident Gyps vultures in the Indian sub-continent to collapse. The birds died when they fed on carrion from treated animals. Veterinary diclofenac was banned in 2006 and meloxicam was advocated as a 'vulture-safe' alternative. We examine the effectiveness of the 2006 ban, whether meloxicam has replaced diclofenac, and the impact of these changes on vultures. Drug residue data from liver samples collected from ungulate carcasses in India since 2004 demonstrate that the prevalence of diclofenac in carcasses in 2009 was half of that before the ban and meloxicam prevalence increased by 44%. The expected vulture death rate from diclofenac per meal in 2009 was one-third of that before the ban. Surveys at veterinary clinics show that diclofenac use in India began in 1994, coinciding with the onset of rapid Gyps declines ascertained from measured rates of declines. Our study shows that one pharmaceutical product has had a devastating impact on Asia's vultures. Large-scale research and survey were needed to detect, diagnose and quantify the problem and measure the response to remedial actions. Given these difficulties, other effects of pharmaceuticals in the environment may remain undetected.
authors.affiliation: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, UK Wildlife Conservation Society, PO Box 277, Goroka, Eastern Highlands Province, Papua New Guinea.
authors.forename: Richard J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Cuthbert
authors.affiliation: Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Thurso KW14 7JD, UK.
authors.forename: Mark A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Taggart
authors.affiliation: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, India.
authors.forename: Vibhu
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Prakash
authors.affiliation: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, India.
authors.forename: Soumya S
authors.initials: SS
authors.lastname: Chakraborty
authors.affiliation: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, India.
authors.forename: Parag
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Deori
authors.affiliation: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, UK.
authors.forename: Toby
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Galligan
authors.affiliation: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, India.
authors.forename: Mandar
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kulkarni
authors.affiliation: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, India.
authors.forename: Sachin
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Ranade
authors.affiliation: Centre for Wildlife Conservation, Management and Disease Surveillance, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh 243 122, India.
authors.forename: Mohini
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Saini
authors.affiliation: Centre for Wildlife Conservation, Management and Disease Surveillance, Indian Veterinary Research Institute, Izatnagar, Uttar Pradesh 243 122, India.
authors.forename: Anil Kumar
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Sharma
authors.affiliation: Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 001, India.
authors.forename: Rohan
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Shringarpure
authors.affiliation: Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, UK Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing St., Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK r.green@zoo.cam.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Rhys E
authors.initials: RE
authors.lastname: Green
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal / Q000633:toxicity*; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D004008:Diclofenac / Q000633:toxicity*; D004781:Environmental Exposure; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000633:toxicity; D046093:Falconiformes / Q000502:physiology*; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D007194:India; D007880:Legislation, Drug; D008099:Liver; D000077239:Meloxicam; D011156:Population Density; D013843:Thiazines / Q000633:toxicity*; D013844:Thiazoles / Q000633:toxicity*; D013995:Time; D019155:Veterinary Drugs / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D000894:Anti-Inflammatory Agents, Non-Steroidal; D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D013843:Thiazines; D013844:Thiazoles; D019155:Veterinary Drugs; D004008:Diclofenac; D000077239:Meloxicam
keywords: Gyps vultures; diclofenac; meloxicam; non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs; pharmaceuticals; scavengers