title: The pathophysiology, diagnosis, and management of foot stress fractures.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There is an increasing prevalence of osteoporosis, and with it a rise in the diagnosis of stress fractures. Postmenopausal women are particularly at risk of stress fractures. This review article describes the pathophysiology of foot stress fractures and the latest diagnostic and treatment strategies for these common injuries.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  There are numerous risk factors for stress fractures that have been identified in the literature. Reduced bone mineral density is an independent risk factor for delayed union. Prevention of stress fractures with training periodization and nutritional assessment is essential, especially in females. Diagnosis of stress fractures of the foot is based on history and diagnostic imaging, which include radiographs, ultrasound, therapeutic ultrasound, computed tomography, and bone scans; however, magnetic resonance imaging is still the gold standard. Treatment depends on the bone involved and the risk of nonunion, with high-risk fractures requiring immobilization or surgical intervention. Patients presenting with underlying bone mineral deficiency treated without surgery require a longer period of activity modification. Training rehabilitation protocols are described for those with low-risk stress fractures.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A useful algorithm is presented to guide the clinician in the diagnosis and management of such injuries.
authors.affiliation: Oxford John Radcliffe Hospitals Orthopaedic Trauma Rotation, Stoke Mandeville Hospital, Aylesbury, Buckinghamshire, England. jpegrum@doctors.net.uk.
authors.forename: James
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Pegrum
authors.forename: Vivek
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Dixit
authors.forename: Nat
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Padhiar
authors.forename: Ian
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Nugent
mesh_terms: D000465:Algorithms; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002111:Calcaneus / Q000293:injuries; D053716:Female Athlete Triad Syndrome / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000503:physiopathology; D005528:Foot / Q000033:anatomy & histology; D005529:Foot Bones / Q000293:injuries*; D015775:Fractures, Stress / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D006801:Humans; D008279:Magnetic Resonance Imaging; D008682:Metatarsal Bones / Q000293:injuries / Q000601:surgery; D009989:Orthotic Devices; D015663:Osteoporosis, Postmenopausal / Q000150:complications; D012307:Risk Factors; D012716:Sesamoid Bones / Q000293:injuries; D013628:Talus / Q000293:injuries; D013639:Tarsal Bones / Q000293:injuries