title: Standardizing visual control devices for tsetse flies: east African Species Glossina fuscipes fuscipes and Glossina tachinoides.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Riverine species of tsetse are responsible for most human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) transmission and are also important vectors of animal trypanosomiasis. This study concerns the development of visual control devices for two such species, Glossina fuscipes fuscipes and Glossina tachinoides, at the eastern limits of their continental range. The goal was to determine the most long-lasting, practical and cost-effective visually attractive device that induces the strongest landing responses in these species for use as insecticide-impregnated tools in vector population suppression.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Field trials were conducted in different seasons on G. f. fuscipes in Kenya, Ethiopia and the Sudan and on G. tachinoides in Ethiopia to measure the performance of traps and 2D targets of different sizes and colours, with and without chemical baits, at different population densities and under different environmental conditions. Adhesive film was used to enumerate flies at these remote locations to compare trapping efficiencies. The findings show that targets made from black and blue fabrics (either phthalogen or turquoise) covered with adhesive film render them equal to or more efficient than traps at capturing G. f. fuscipes and G. tachinoides. Biconical trap efficiency varied between 25% and 33% for the two species. Smaller 0.25 m×0.25 m phthalogen blue-black targets proved more efficient than the regular 1 m2 target for both species, by over six times for Glossina f. fuscipes and two times for G. tachinoides based on catches per m2. Overall, targets with a higher edge/surface area ratio were more efficient at capturing flies.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Taking into account practical considerations and fly preferences for edges and colours, we propose a 0.5×0.75 m blue-black target as a simple cost-effective device for management of G. f. fuscipes and G. tachinoides, impregnated with insecticide for control and covered with adhesive film for population sampling.
authors.affiliation: Tsecon Consultants, Nairobi, Kenya.
authors.forename: Francis
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Oloo
authors.affiliation: Department of Agriculture, Environmental and Food Sciences, University of Molise, Campobasso, Italy.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Sciarretta
authors.affiliation: College of Veterinary Medicine, Sudan University of Science and Technology, Khartoum-North, Sudan.
authors.forename: Mohamed M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Mohamed-Ahmed
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Kröber
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: McMullin
authors.affiliation: Independent Scientist, Russell, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Steve
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mihok
authors.affiliation: Institute of Biology, University of Neuchâtel, Neuchâtel, Switzerland.
authors.forename: Patrick M
authors.initials: PM
authors.lastname: Guerin
mesh_terms: D000269:Adhesives; D000351:Africa, Eastern; D000818:Animals; D003116:Color; D007300:Insect Control / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods* / Q000592:standards*; D014370:Tsetse Flies / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D000269:Adhesives