title: Brain-controlled muscle stimulation for the restoration of motor function.
abstract: Loss of the ability to move, as a consequence of spinal cord injury or neuromuscular disorder, has devastating consequences for the paralyzed individual, and great economic consequences for society. Functional electrical stimulation (FES) offers one means to restore some mobility to these individuals, improving not only their autonomy, but potentially their general health and well-being as well. FES uses electrical stimulation to cause the paralyzed muscles to contract. Existing clinical systems require the stimulation to be preprogrammed, with the patient typically using residual voluntary movement of another body part to trigger and control the patterned stimulation. The rapid development of neural interfacing in the past decade offers the promise of dramatically improved control for these patients, potentially allowing continuous control of FES through signals recorded from motor cortex, as the patient attempts to control the paralyzed body part. While application of these 'brain-machine interfaces' (BMIs) has undergone dramatic development for control of computer cursors and even robotic limbs, their use as an interface for FES has been much more limited. In this review, we consider both FES and BMI technologies and discuss the prospect for combining the two to provide important new options for paralyzed individuals.
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, USA.
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ethier
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 303 E. Chicago Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, USA; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Northwestern University, 2145 Sheridan Road Evanston, IL 60208, USA; Department of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation, Feinberg School of Medicine, Northwestern University, 345 E. Superior Ave., Chicago, IL 60611, USA. Electronic address: lm@northwestern.edu.
authors.forename: Lee E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Miller
mesh_terms: D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology*; D062207:Brain-Computer Interfaces / Q000639:trends*; D004599:Electric Stimulation Therapy / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends*; D000069280:Electrocorticography / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D004569:Electroencephalography / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D006801:Humans; D009044:Motor Cortex / Q000503:physiopathology; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000294:innervation / Q000503:physiopathology*; D009474:Neurons / Q000502:physiology; D010243:Paralysis / Q000209:etiology / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000534:rehabilitation*; D011597:Psychomotor Performance; D020127:Recovery of Function; D013119:Spinal Cord Injuries / Q000150:complications*
keywords: Brain–machine interface; Functional electrical stimulation; Motor cortex; Paralysis; Spinal cord injury