title: The Yoruba version of the Beck Hopelessness Scale: psychometric characteristics and correlates of hopelessness in a sample of Nigerian psychiatric outpatients.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Previous studies from the developed western countries have repeatedly demonstrated that hopelessness positively correlates with an increased risk of suicide in the context of chronic mental disorders such as schizophrenia and affective disorders. Despite this persistently strong association, the construct of hopelessness in terms of its factorial structure and correlates has not been explored among Nigerian psychiatric outpatients.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The aim of this present study is to examine the psychometric characteristics of the Yoruba language culturally adapted version of the Beck Hopelessness Scale in a cross-sectional sample of psychiatric outpatients in South-western Nigeria.
  
  
  METHODS
  The participants were 327 Nigerian adult outpatients receiving treatment for schizophrenia, bipolar and depressive disorders, consecutively recruited from the outpatient psychiatric clinics of a university teaching hospital in South-western Nigeria. The outpatients were recruited over a one year period. They completed the Yoruba translated version of the Beck Hopelessness Scale (BHS-Y), a sociodemographic and illness-related questionnaire, the Beck Depression Inventory-II (BDI-II). Their level of functioning was assessed with the Global Assessment of Functioning Scale (GAF), psychopathology was evaluated with the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the level of disability measured with the World Health Organization Disability Assessment Schedule (WHODAS-II). Suicidality and confirmation of the diagnoses of schizophrenia, bipolar and depressive disorders were evaluated with the Mini International Neuropsychiatric Interview (MINI). The construct of hopelessness in terms of factorial structure, reliability, validity and correlates was explored. Exploratory Factor Analysis using Principal Component Analysis with Varimax rotation was used to examine the factorial structure of the BHS-Y. Internal consistency was examined with Cronbach's alpha, and the construct validity of the scale was assessed using correlational analyses with the MINI suicidality module, BDI-II, GAF and WHODAS-II domain scores. We also tested the hypothesis that a shortened version of the BHS-Y will possess psychometric properties similar to the 20 item version.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Exploratory Factor Analysis using Principal Component Analysis with Varimax rotation showed that the construct of hopelessness among our outpatients was best explained by a 3 factor model. Reliability of the translated version of the scale was adequate as indicated by a Cronbach's alpha of 0.92. Construct validity was also satisfactory as reflected by the strong correlations with MINI suicidality, Beck Depression Inventory-II and Global Assessment of Functioning scores. The shortened 4 item single factor BHS-Y composed of items 8, 9, 13 and 15 demonstrated psychometric properties similar to those of the full item version.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The Beck Hopelessness Scale (Yoruba Version) demonstrated satisfactory reliability and validity and therefore may be useful in measuring the construct of hopelessness and in clinical suicide risk assessments among Nigerian psychiatric outpatients. There is the need for more studies to further explore the psychometric features and correlates of this scale among other Nigerian ethnic groups in addition to other medical patients' populations.
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria. Electronic address: alobatee2002@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Olutayo
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Aloba
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Adesanmi
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Akinsulore
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Boladale
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Mapayi
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Ibiduniyi
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Oloniniyi
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Kolawole
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Mosaku
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Taiwo
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Alimi
authors.affiliation: Department of Mental Health, Obafemi Awolowo University Teaching Hospitals Complex, Ile-Ife, Osun State, Nigeria.
authors.forename: Olufemi
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Esan
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001714:Bipolar Disorder / Q000208:ethnology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D003866:Depressive Disorder / Q000208:ethnology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D005163:Factor Analysis, Statistical; D005260:Female; D065026:Hope / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009549:Nigeria / Q000208:ethnology; D011569:Psychiatric Status Rating Scales / Q000592:standards*; D011594:Psychometrics / Q000295:instrumentation*; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D012559:Schizophrenia / Q000208:ethnology / Q000503:physiopathology*; D055815:Young Adult