title: Children do not recalibrate motor-sensory temporal order after exposure to delayed sensory feedback.
abstract: Prolonged adaptation to delayed sensory feedback to a simple motor act (such as pressing a key) causes recalibration of sensory-motor synchronization, so instantaneous feedback appears to precede the motor act that caused it (Stetson, Cui, Montague & Eagleman, 2006). We investigated whether similar recalibration occurs in school-age children. Although plasticity may be expected to be even greater in children than in adults, we found no evidence of recalibration in children aged 8-11 years. Subjects adapted to delayed feedback for 100 trials, intermittently pressing a key that caused a tone to sound after a 200 ms delay. During the test phase, subjects responded to a visual cue by pressing a key, which triggered a tone to be played at variable intervals before or after the keypress. Subjects judged whether the tone preceded or followed the keypress, yielding psychometric functions estimating the delay when they perceived the tone to be synchronous with the action. The psychometric functions also gave an estimate of the precision of the temporal order judgment. In agreement with previous studies, adaptation caused a shift in perceived synchrony in adults, so the keypress appeared to trail behind the auditory feedback, implying sensory-motor recalibration. However, school children of 8 to 11 years showed no measureable adaptation of perceived simultaneity, even after adaptation with 500 ms lags. Importantly, precision in the simultaneity task also improved with age, and this developmental trend correlated strongly with the magnitude of recalibration. This suggests that lack of recalibration of sensory-motor simultaneity after adaptation in school-age children is related to their poor precision in temporal order judgments. To test this idea we measured recalibration in adult subjects with auditory noise added to the stimuli (which hampered temporal precision). Under these conditions, recalibration was greatly reduced, with the magnitude of recalibration strongly correlating with temporal precision.
authors.affiliation: Robotics, Brain & Cognitive Sciences Department, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Tiziana
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Vercillo
authors.affiliation: Department of Neuroscience, University of Florence, Italy.|CNR Institute of Neuroscience, Pisa, Italy.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Burr
authors.affiliation: Robotics, Brain & Cognitive Sciences Department, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Giulio
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Sandini
authors.affiliation: Robotics, Brain & Cognitive Sciences Department, Fondazione Istituto Italiano di Tecnologia, Genoa, Italy.
authors.forename: Monica
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gori
mesh_terms: D000161:Acoustic Stimulation; D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D002648:Child; D002657:Child Development; D056228:Feedback, Sensory / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011594:Psychometrics; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology*; D013998:Time Perception / Q000502:physiology*