title: The role of immunophilins in viral infection.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Tremendous progress has been made in the past 20 years in understanding the roles played by immunophilins, and in particular the cyclophilins, in supporting the replication cycles of human viruses. A growing body of genetic and biochemical evidence and data from clinical trials confirm that cyclophilins are essential cofactors that contribute to establishing a permissive environment within the host cell that supports the replication of HIV-1 and HCV. Cyclophilin A regulates HIV-1 replication kinetics and infectivity, modulates sensitivity to host restriction factors, and cooperates in the transit of the pre-integration complex into the nucleus of infected cells. Cyclophilin A is an essential cofactor whose expression supports HCV-specific RNA replication in human hepatocytes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Peptidyl-prolyl isomerase inhibitors have been used in clinical trials to validate cyclophilins as antiviral targets for the treatment of HIV-1 and Chronic Hepatitis C virus infection and as molecular probes to identify the roles played by immunophilins in supporting the replication cycles of human viruses.
  
  
  METHODS
  This review summarizes emerging research that defines the functions of immunophilins in supporting the replication cycles of HIV-1, HCV, HBV, coronaviruses, and other viral pathogens and describes new information that suggests a role for immunophilins in regulating innate immune responses against chronic viral infection.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The dependence on cyclophilins by evolutionarily distinct viruses for accomplishing various steps in replication such as viral entry, initiation of genomic nucleic acid replication, viral genome uncoating, nuclear import and nuclear entry, emphasizes the potential of cyclophilin inhibitors as therapeutic agents. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled Proline-directed Foldases: Cell Signaling Catalysts and Drug Targets.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Research, Autoimmune Technologies, New Orleans, LA 70112 USA. Electronic address: s.hopkins@autoimmune.com.
authors.forename: Sam
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Hopkins
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology & Microbial Science, The Scripps Research Institute, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA. Electronic address: gallay@scripps.edu.
authors.forename: Philippe A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Gallay
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D021984:Cyclophilin A / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D012327:RNA Virus Infections / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism*; D012328:RNA Viruses / Q000472:pathogenicity / Q000502:physiology*; D012367:RNA, Viral / Q000096:biosynthesis*; D053586:Virus Internalization; D014779:Virus Replication / Q000502:physiology*
chemical_list: D012367:RNA, Viral; D021984:Cyclophilin A
keywords: Cyclophilin inhibitors; Cyclophilins; HCV; HIV-1; Immunophilins; Viruses