title: Organic nitrates: update on mechanisms underlying vasodilation, tolerance and endothelial dysfunction.
abstract: Given acutely, organic nitrates, such as nitroglycerin (GTN), isosorbide mono- and dinitrates (ISMN, ISDN), and pentaerythrityl tetranitrate (PETN), have potent vasodilator and anti-ischemic effects in patients with acute coronary syndromes, acute and chronic congestive heart failure and arterial hypertension. During long-term treatment, however, side effects such as nitrate tolerance and endothelial dysfunction occur, and therapeutic efficacy of these drugs rapidly vanishes. Recent experimental and clinical studies have revealed that organic nitrates per se are not just nitric oxide (NO) donors, but rather a quite heterogeneous group of drugs considerably differing for mechanisms underlying vasodilation and the development of endothelial dysfunction and tolerance. Based on this, we propose that the term nitrate tolerance should be avoided and more specifically the terms of GTN, ISMN and ISDN tolerance should be used. The present review summarizes preclinical and clinical data concerning organic nitrates. Here we also emphasize the consequences of chronic nitrate therapy on the supersensitivity of the vasculature to vasoconstriction and on the increased autocrine expression of endothelin. We believe that these so far rather neglected and underestimated side effects of chronic therapy with at least GTN and ISMN are clinically important.
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology and Angiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany. Electronic address: tmuenzel@uni-mainz.de.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Münzel
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology and Angiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany.
authors.forename: Sebastian
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Steven
authors.affiliation: Department of Cardiology and Angiology, University Medical Center, Mainz, Germany.
authors.forename: Andreas
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Daiber
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004361:Drug Tolerance; D004730:Endothelium, Vascular / Q000187:drug effects*; D006801:Humans; D009566:Nitrates / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D014652:Vascular Diseases / Q000188:drug therapy*; D014664:Vasodilation / Q000187:drug effects*; D014665:Vasodilator Agents / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use*
chemical_list: D009566:Nitrates; D014665:Vasodilator Agents
keywords: Captopril: Pubchem CID 44093; Endothelin; Folic Acid: Pubchem CID 6037; Hydralazine: Pubchem CID 3637; ISDN: Pubchem CID 6883; ISMN: Pubchem CID 27661; Isosorbide mono- and dinitrate; Lipoic acid: Pubchem CID 864; Macitentan: Pubchem CID 16004692; Nitroglycerin; Nitroglycerin: Pubchem CID 4510; PETN: Pubchem CID 6518; PETrin: Pubchem CID 15353; Pentaerythrityl tetranitrate; Tolerance