title: Stress fracture of the pelvis and lower limbs including atypical femoral fractures-a review.
abstract: Stress fractures, that is fatigue and insufficiency fractures, of the pelvis and lower limb come in many guises. Most doctors are familiar with typical sacral, tibial or metatarsal stress fractures. However, even common and typical presentations can pose diagnostic difficulties especially early after the onset of clinical symptoms. This article reviews the aetiology and pathophysiology of stress fractures and their reflection in the imaging appearances. The role of varying imaging modalities is laid out and typical findings are demonstrated. Emphasis is given to sometimes less well-appreciated fractures, which might be missed and can have devastating consequences for longer term patient outcomes. In particular, atypical femoral shaft fractures and their relationship to bisphosphonates are discussed. Migrating bone marrow oedema syndrome, transient osteoporosis and spontaneous osteonecrosis are reviewed as manifestations of stress fractures. Radiotherapy-related stress fractures are examined in more detail. An overview of typical sites of stress fractures in the pelvis and lower limbs and their particular clinical relevance concludes this review. Teaching Points • Stress fractures indicate bone fatigue or insufficiency or a combination of these. • Radiographic visibility of stress fractures is delayed by 2 to 3 weeks. • MRI is the most sensitive and specific modality for stress fractures. • Stress fractures are often multiple; the underlying cause should be evaluated. • Infratrochanteric lateral femoral fractures suggest an atypical femoral fracture (AFF); endocrinologist referral is advisable.
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, Robert Jones and Agnes Hunt Orthopaedic and District Hospital, NHS Trust, Twmpath Lane, Oswestry, SY10 7AG, UK, Bernhard.Tins@rjah.nhs.uk.
authors.forename: Bernhard J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Tins
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Garton
authors.forename: Victor N
authors.initials: VN
authors.lastname: Cassar-Pullicino
authors.forename: Prudencia N M
authors.initials: PN
authors.lastname: Tyrrell
authors.forename: Radhesh
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Lalam
authors.forename: Jaspreet
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Singh