title: Shared toilet users' collective cleaning and determinant factors in Kampala slums, Uganda.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Dirty shared toilets are a health risk to users in urban slum settlements. For health and non-health benefits among users of shared toilets to be guaranteed, their cleanliness is important. The objective of this study was to investigate the cleanliness situation of shared toilets in Kampala's slums and the psychological and social dilemma factors influencing users' cleaning behaviour and commitment by using the risks, attitudes, norms, ability and self-regulation (RANAS) model and factors derived from the social dilemma theory.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted a cross-sectional study in three slums of Kampala between December 2012 and January 2013. Data were collected from 424 household respondents that were primarily using shared toilets. Semi-structured questionnaires administered through face-to-face interviews were used in data collection. Linear regression was done for the multivariate analysis to test for the association between respondent cleaning behaviour and a combination of RANAS and social dilemma predictors.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Out of 424 respondents interviewed, 44.3% reported cleaning the shared toilet daily, 34.4% cleaned once or several times a week, 1.4% cleaned every second week, 5.4% cleaned once or several times a month and 14.4% did not participate in cleaning. The main RANAS factors significantly associated with respondents' cleaning behaviour were: attitudinal affective belief associated with cleaning a shared toilet (β = -0.13, P = 0.00) and self-regulating factors, such as coping planning (β = 0.42, P = 0.00), commitment (β = 0.24, P = 0.00), and remembering (β = 0.10, P = 0.01). For social dilemma factors, only the social motive factor was statistically significant (β = 0.15, P = 0.00). The R square for the linear model on factors influencing cleaning behaviour was 0.77 and R square for factors influencing cleaning commitment was 0.70.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The RANAS factors provide a more robust understanding of shared toilet users' cleaning behaviour than social dilemma factors. Self-regulating factors and changing the negative affective cleaning feelings are shown to be very important for interventions to increase shared toilet users' collective participation in their cleaning. In addition to RANAS, social dilemma factors have an important influence on slum residents' commitment to clean their shared toilets.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland. kamara.innocent@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Innocent K
authors.initials: IK
authors.lastname: Tumwebaze
authors.forename: Hans-Joachim
authors.initials: HJ
authors.lastname: Mosler
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001290:Attitude; D003299:Cooperative Behavior; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006126:Group Processes; D006801:Humans; D016014:Linear Models; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011204:Poverty Areas; D012927:Social Control, Informal; D066262:Social Norms; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D014038:Toilet Facilities; D014454:Uganda; D055815:Young Adult