title: Considerations for animal models of blast-related traumatic brain injury and chronic traumatic encephalopathy.
abstract: The association of military blast exposure and brain injury was first appreciated in World War I as commotio cerebri, and later as shell shock. Similar injuries sustained in modern military conflicts are now classified as mild traumatic brain injury (TBI). Recent research has yielded new insights into the mechanisms by which blast exposure leads to acute brain injury and chronic sequelae, including postconcussive syndrome, post-traumatic stress disorder, post-traumatic headache, and chronic traumatic encephalopathy, a tau protein neurodegenerative disease. Impediments to delivery of effective medical care for individuals affected by blast-related TBI include: poor insight into the heterogeneity of neurological insults induced by blast exposure; limited understanding of the mechanisms by which blast exposure injures the brain and triggers sequelae; failure to appreciate interactive injuries that affect frontal lobe function, pituitary regulation, and neurovegetative homeostasis; unknown influence of genetic risk factors, prior trauma, and comorbidities; absence of validated diagnostic criteria and clinical nosology that differentiate clinical endophenotypes; and lack of empirical evidence to guide medical management and therapeutic intervention. While clinicopathological analysis can provide evidence of correlative association, experimental use of animal models remains the primary tool for establishing causal mechanisms of disease. However, the TBI field is confronted by a welter of animal models with varying clinical relevance, thereby impeding scientific coherence and hindering translational progress. Animal models of blast TBI will be far more translationally useful if experimental emphasis focuses on accurate reproduction of clinically relevant endpoints (output) rather than scaled replication of idealized blast shockwaves (input). The utility of an animal model is dependent on the degree to which the model recapitulates pathophysiological mechanisms, neuropathological features, and neurological sequelae observed in the corresponding human disorder. Understanding the purpose of an animal model and the criteria by which experimental results derived from the model are validated are critical components for useful animal modeling. Animal models that reliably demonstrate clinically relevant endpoints will expedite development of new treatments, diagnostics, preventive measures, and rehabilitative strategies for individuals affected by blast TBI and its aftermath.
authors.affiliation: Boston University School of Medicine and College of Engineering, 670 Albany Street, 4th Floor, Boston 02118, MA, USA ; Boston University Alzheimer's Disease Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Robinson Hall, 7th Floor, Boston 02118, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Lee E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Goldstein
authors.affiliation: Boston University Alzheimer's Disease Center, Boston University School of Medicine, Robinson Hall, 7th Floor, Boston 02118, MA, USA ; US Department of Veterans Affairs, VA Boston Healthcare System, 150 South Huntington Avenue, Boston 02130, MA, USA.
authors.forename: Ann C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: McKee
authors.affiliation: Departments of Neurology, Cell Biology & Anatomy, New York Medical College, Basic Science Building, Rm 217, Valhalla 10595, NY, USA.
authors.forename: Patric K
authors.initials: PK
authors.lastname: Stanton