title: Movement of the human foot in 100 pain free individuals aged 18-45: implications for understanding normal foot function.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Understanding motion in the normal healthy foot is a prerequisite for understanding the effects of pathology and thereafter setting targets for interventions. Quality foot kinematic data from healthy feet will also assist the development of high quality and research based clinical models of foot biomechanics. To address gaps in the current literature we aimed to describe 3D foot kinematics using a 5 segment foot model in a population of 100 pain free individuals.
  
  
  METHODS
  Kinematics of the leg, calcaneus, midfoot, medial and lateral forefoot and hallux were measured in 100 self reported healthy and pain free individuals during walking. Descriptive statistics were used to characterise foot movements. Contributions from different foot segments to the total motion in each plane were also derived to explore functional roles of different parts of the foot.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Foot segments demonstrated greatest motion in the sagittal plane, but large ranges of movement in all planes. All foot segments demonstrated movement throughout gait, though least motion was observed between the midfoot and calcaneus. There was inconsistent evidence of movement coupling between joints. There were clear differences in motion data compared to foot segment models reported in the literature.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The data reveal the foot is a multiarticular structure, movements are complex, show incomplete evidence of coupling, and vary person to person. The data provide a useful reference data set against which future experimental data can be compared and may provide the basis for conceptual models of foot function based on data rather than anecdotal observations.
authors.affiliation: School of Health Sciences, University of Salford, PO 32 Brian Blatchford Building, Salford, M6 6PU UK.
authors.forename: Christopher J
authors.initials: CJ
authors.lastname: Nester
authors.affiliation: School of Health Sciences, University of Salford, PO 32 Brian Blatchford Building, Salford, M6 6PU UK.
authors.forename: Hannah L
authors.initials: HL
authors.lastname: Jarvis
authors.affiliation: School of Health Sciences, University of Salford, PO 32 Brian Blatchford Building, Salford, M6 6PU UK.
authors.forename: Richard K
authors.initials: RK
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.affiliation: School of Health Sciences, University of Salford, PO 32 Brian Blatchford Building, Salford, M6 6PU UK.
authors.forename: Peter D
authors.initials: PD
authors.lastname: Bowden
authors.affiliation: School of Health Sciences, University of Salford, PO 32 Brian Blatchford Building, Salford, M6 6PU UK.
authors.forename: Anmin
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Liu
keywords: Foot model; Foot motion; Foot segments; Normal foot kinematics