title: Psychophysiology of pain and opioid use: implications for managing pain in patients with an opioid use disorder.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Opioid therapy is one component of an effective pain management regimen for patients with chronic pain and the majority of these patients use their medications responsibly. However, there are a growing number of these patients who develop an opioid use disorder and in some cases require opioid replacement therapy. Managing these patients is complex and the underlying mechanisms of pain and addiction are not well understood. Developing an effective interdisciplinary treatment program for the individual with pain and an opioid use disorder will depend on enhancing our knowledge of the psychophysiology of pain and addiction.
  
  
  METHODS
  Authors gathered key empirical and theoretical papers examining the psychophysiology of comorbid pain and opioid misuse disorders.
  
  
  RESULTS
  This article reviews the current theory of the effect of pain on patients with pain and concomitant addiction, the psychophysiology of pain, opioid use and addiction, and future research in this area.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Individuals with a history of opioid misuse have greater levels of hyperalgesia which may be due to alterations in psychophysiological pathways. More research is needed into the psychophysiological biomarkers among individuals with comorbid pain and addiction in order to develop better treatment approaches and improve outcomes among this difficult to treat population.
authors.affiliation: University of Massachusetts Medical School, Department of Psychiatry, 55 Lake Ave, North, Worcester, MA 01655, United States. Electronic address: amy.wachholtz@umassmemorial.org.
authors.forename: Amy
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Wachholtz
authors.affiliation: Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Department of Psychiatry, 3535 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States.
authors.forename: Simmie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Foster
authors.affiliation: Perelman School of Medicine, University of Pennsylvania, Department of Psychiatry, 3535 Market Street, Philadelphia, PA 19104, United States.
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cheatle
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use; D016739:Behavior, Addictive / Q000503:physiopathology*; D001921:Brain / Q000503:physiopathology; D059350:Chronic Pain / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000523:psychology*; D006801:Humans; D006930:Hyperalgesia / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000523:psychology; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000150:complications / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000523:psychology*
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid
keywords: Addiction; Opioids; Pain; Psychophysiology