title: In vivo ectopic bone formation by devitalized mineralized stem cell carriers produced under mineralizing culture condition.
abstract: Functionalization of tissue engineering scaffolds with in vitro-generated bone-like extracellular matrix (ECM) represents an effective biomimetic approach to promote osteogenic differentiation of stem cells in vitro. However, the bone-forming capacity of these constructs (seeded with or without cells) is so far not apparent. In this study, we aimed at developing a mineralizing culture condition to biofunctionalize three-dimensional (3D) porous scaffolds with highly mineralized ECM in order to produce devitalized, osteoinductive mineralized carriers for human periosteal-derived progenitors (hPDCs). For this, three medium formulations [i.e., growth medium only (BM1), with ascorbic acid (BM2), and with ascorbic acid and dexamethasone (BM3)] supplemented with calcium (Ca(2+)) and phosphate (PO4 (3-)) ions simultaneously as mineralizing source were investigated. The results showed that, besides the significant impacts on enhancing cell proliferation (the highest in BM3 condition), the formulated mineralizing media differentially regulated the osteochondro-related gene markers in a medium-dependent manner (e.g., significant upregulation of BMP2, bone sialoprotein, osteocalcin, and Wnt5a in BM2 condition). This has resulted in distinguished cell populations that were identifiable by specific gene signatures as demonstrated by the principle component analysis. Through devitalization, mineralized carriers with apatite crystal structures unique to each medium condition (by X-ray diffraction and SEM analysis) were obtained. Quantitatively, BM3 condition produced carriers with the highest mineral and collagen contents as well as human-specific VEGF proteins, followed by BM2 and BM1 conditions. Encouragingly, all mineralized carriers (after reseeded with hPDCs) induced bone formation after 8 weeks of subcutaneous implantation in nude mice models, with BM2-carriers inducing the highest bone volume, and the lowest in the BM3 condition (as quantitated by nano-computed tomography [nano-CT]). Histological analysis revealed different bone formation patterns, either bone ossicles containing bone marrow surrounding the scaffold struts (in BM2) or bone apposition directly on the struts' surface (in BM1 and BM3). In conclusion, we have presented experimental data on the feasibility to produce devitalized osteoinductive mineralized carriers by functionalizing 3D porous scaffolds with an in vitro cell-made mineralized matrix under the mineralizing culture conditions.
authors.affiliation: Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center , KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium . ; Department of Biomedical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering, University of Malaya , Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia . ; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium .
authors.forename: Yoke Chin
authors.initials: YC
authors.lastname: Chai
authors.affiliation: Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium . ; Biomechanics Research Unit, University of Liege , Liege, Belgium .
authors.forename: Liesbet
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Geris
authors.affiliation: Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center , KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium . ; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium .
authors.forename: Johanna
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Bolander
authors.affiliation: Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium . ; Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven , Heverlee, Belgium .
authors.forename: Grzegorz
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Pyka
authors.affiliation: Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium . ; Division of Production Engineering, Machine Design and Automation, Department of Mechanical Engineering, KU Leuven , Heverlee, Belgium .
authors.forename: Simon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Van Bael
authors.affiliation: Tissue Engineering Laboratory, Skeletal Biology and Engineering Research Center , KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium . ; Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium .
authors.forename: Frank P
authors.initials: FP
authors.lastname: Luyten
authors.affiliation: Prometheus, Division of Skeletal Tissue Engineering, KU Leuven , Leuven, Belgium . ; Department of Materials Engineering, KU Leuven , Heverlee, Belgium .
authors.forename: Jan
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Schrooten
keywords: biomineralization; bone regeneration; devitalization; mineralized extracellular matrix; osteoinductive carriers