title: Adrenergic and non-adrenergic control of active skeletal muscle blood flow: implications for blood pressure regulation during exercise.
abstract: Blood flow to active skeletal muscle increases markedly during dynamic exercise. However, despite the massive capacity of skeletal muscle vasculature to dilate, arterial blood pressure is well maintained. Sympathetic nerve activity is elevated with increased intensity of dynamic exercise, and is essential for redistribution of cardiac output to active skeletal muscle and maintenance of arterial blood pressure. In addition, aside from the sympathetic nervous system, evidence from human studies is now emerging that supports roles for non-adrenergic vasoconstrictor pathways that become active during exercise and contribute to vasoconstriction in active skeletal muscle. Neuropeptide Y and adenosine triphosphate are neurotransmitters that are co-released with norepinephrine from sympathetic nerve terminals capable of producing vasoconstriction. Likewise, plasma concentrations of arginine vasopressin, angiotensin II (Ang II) and endothelin-1 (ET-1) increase during dynamic exercise, particularly at higher intensities. Ang II and ET-1 have both been shown to be important vasoconstrictor pathways for restraint of blood flow in active skeletal muscle and the maintenance of arterial blood pressure during exercise. Indeed, although both adrenergic and non-adrenergic vasoconstriction can be attenuated in exercising muscle with greater intensity of exercise, with the higher volume of blood flow, the active skeletal muscle vasculature remains capable of contributing importantly to the maintenance of blood pressure. In this brief review we provide an update on skeletal muscle blood flow regulation during exercise with an emphasis on adrenergic and non-adrenergic vasoconstrictor pathways and their potential capacity to offset vasodilation and aid in the regulation of blood pressure.
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.
authors.forename: Seth W
authors.initials: SW
authors.lastname: Holwerda
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States.
authors.forename: Robert M
authors.initials: RM
authors.lastname: Restaino
authors.affiliation: Department of Medical Pharmacology and Physiology, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States; Dalton Cardiovascular Research Center, University of Missouri, Columbia, MO, United States. Electronic address: fadelp@health.missouri.ed.
authors.forename: Paul J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Fadel
mesh_terms: D000241:Adenosine / Q000378:metabolism; D000818:Animals; D001794:Blood Pressure / Q000502:physiology*; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D018482:Muscle, Skeletal / Q000098:blood supply* / Q000294:innervation; D009478:Neuropeptide Y / Q000378:metabolism; D009638:Norepinephrine / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000494:pharmacology; D012039:Regional Blood Flow / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D013564:Sympathetic Nervous System / Q000502:physiology*; D014661:Vasoconstriction
chemical_list: D009478:Neuropeptide Y; D000241:Adenosine; D009638:Norepinephrine
keywords: Angiotensin II; Endothelin-1; Sympathetic nervous system; Vasoconstriction; Vasodilation