title: Seasonal patterns of mixed species groups in large East African mammals.
abstract: Mixed mammal species groups are common in East African savannah ecosystems. Yet, it is largely unknown if co-occurrences of large mammals result from random processes or social preferences and if interspecific associations are consistent across ecosystems and seasons. Because species may exchange important information and services, understanding patterns and drivers of heterospecific interactions is crucial for advancing animal and community ecology. We recorded 5403 single and multi-species clusters in the Serengeti-Ngorongoro and Tarangire-Manyara ecosystems during dry and wet seasons and used social network analyses to detect patterns of species associations. We found statistically significant associations between multiple species and association patterns differed spatially and seasonally. Consistently, wildebeest and zebras preferred being associated with other species, whereas carnivores, African elephants, Maasai giraffes and Kirk's dik-diks avoided being in mixed groups. During the dry season, we found that the betweenness (a measure of importance in the flow of information or disease) of species did not differ from a random expectation based on species abundance. In contrast, in the wet season, we found that these patterns were not simply explained by variations in abundances, suggesting that heterospecific associations were actively formed. These seasonal differences in observed patterns suggest that interspecific associations may be driven by resource overlap when resources are limited and by resource partitioning or anti-predator advantages when resources are abundant. We discuss potential mechanisms that could drive seasonal variation in the cost-benefit tradeoffs that underpin the formation of mixed-species groups.
authors.affiliation: Centre For Wildlife Management Studies, The School For Field Studies, Karatu, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Kiffner
authors.affiliation: Centre For Wildlife Management Studies, The School For Field Studies, Karatu, Tanzania.
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kioko
authors.affiliation: Centre For Wildlife Management Studies, The School For Field Studies, Karatu, Tanzania; Tanzania Wildlife Research Institute, Arusha, Tanzania.
authors.forename: Cecilia
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Leweri
authors.affiliation: Lübeck University of Applied Sciences, Lübeck, Germany.
authors.forename: Stefan
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Krause
mesh_terms: D000351:Africa, Eastern; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal; D017753:Ecosystem; D008322:Mammals / Q000145:classification* / Q000502:physiology / Q000523:psychology*; D008954:Models, Biological; D012621:Seasons; D013045:Species Specificity