title: Particulate inorganic adjuvants: recent developments and future outlook.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To review the state of the art and assess future potential in the use of inorganic particulates as vaccine adjuvants.
  
  
  RESULTS
  An adjuvant is an entity added to a vaccine formulation to ensure that robust immunity to the antigen is inculcated. The inclusion of an adjuvant is typically vital for the efficacy of vaccines using inactivated organisms, subunit and DNA antigens. With increasing research efforts being focused on subunit and DNA antigens because of their improved safety profiles, the development of appropriate adjuvants is becoming ever more crucial. Despite this, very few adjuvants are licensed for use in humans (four by the FDA, five by the European Medicines Agency). The most widely used adjuvant, alum, has been used for nearly 90 years, yet its mechanism of action remains poorly understood. In addition, while alum produces a powerful antibody Th2 response, it does not provoke the cellular immune response required for the elimination of intracellular infections or cancers. New adjuvants are therefore needed, and inorganic systems have attracted much attention in this regard.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In this review, the inorganic adjuvants currently in use are considered, and the efforts made to date to understand their mechanisms of action are summarised. We then move on to survey the literature on inorganic particulate adjuvants, focusing on the most interesting recent developments in this area and their future potential.
authors.affiliation: UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, London, UK.
authors.forename: Charlotte N
authors.initials: CN
authors.lastname: Maughan
authors.forename: Stephen G
authors.initials: SG
authors.lastname: Preston
authors.forename: Gareth R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Williams
mesh_terms: D000276:Adjuvants, Immunologic / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000534:Alum Compounds / Q000627:therapeutic use; D006801:Humans; D007111:Immunity, Cellular; D008670:Metals / Q000627:therapeutic use; D009369:Neoplasms / Q000517:prevention & control; D014612:Vaccines
chemical_list: D000276:Adjuvants, Immunologic; D000534:Alum Compounds; D008670:Metals; D014612:Vaccines; C041524:aluminum sulfate
keywords: adjuvant; inorganic material; particle engineering; vaccine