title: Neuromodulation research and application in the U.S. Department of Defense.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Modern neuromodulatory techniques for military applications have been explored for the past decade, with an intent to optimize operator performance and, ultimately, to improve overall military effectiveness. In light of potential military applications, some researchers have voiced concern about national security agency involvement in this area of research, and possible exploitation of research findings to support military objectives. The aim of this article is to examine the U.S. Department of Defense's interest in and application of neuromodulation.
  
  
  METHODS
  We explored articles, cases, and historical context to identify critical considerations of debate concerning dual use (i.e., national security and civilian) technologies, specifically focusing on non-invasive brain stimulation (NIBS).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We review the background and recent examples of DoD-sponsored neuromodulation research, framed in the more general context of research that aims to optimize and/or rehabilitate human performance. We propose that concerns about military exploitation of neuromodulatory science and technology are not unique, but rather are part of a larger philosophic debate pertaining to military application of human performance science and technology. We consider unique aspects of the Department of Defense research enterprise--which includes programs crucial to the advancement of military medicine--and why it is well-situated to fund and perform such research. We conclude that debate concerning DoD investment in human performance research must recognize the significant potential for dual use (civilian, medical) benefit as well as the need for civilian scientific insight and influence. Military interests in the health and performance of service members provide research funding and impetus to dual use applications that will benefit the civilian community.
authors.affiliation: Research Imaging Institute, School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, Texas. Electronic address: nelsonj7@uthscsa.edu.
authors.forename: Jeremy T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Nelson
authors.affiliation: The Geneva Foundation, Tacoma, Washington.
authors.forename: Victoria
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Tepe
mesh_terms: D035843:Biomedical Research / Q000941:ethics; D001921:Brain / Q000502:physiology*; D046690:Deep Brain Stimulation / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D006801:Humans; D008887:Military Medicine / Q000941:ethics; D008889:Military Personnel; D008891:Military Science / Q000941:ethics / Q000379:methods*; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D065908:Transcranial Direct Current Stimulation / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D050781:Transcranial Magnetic Stimulation / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D014481:United States; D059030:United States Department of Defense / Q000941:ethics
keywords: Brain stimulation; National security; Neuromodulation; Performance enhancement; Performance optimization; Transcranial direct current stimulation; Transcranial magnetic stimulation