title: Wilderness Medical Society practice guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite: 2014 update.
abstract: The Wilderness Medical Society convened an expert panel to develop a set of evidence-based guidelines for the prevention and treatment of frostbite. We present a review of pertinent pathophysiology. We then discuss primary and secondary prevention measures and therapeutic management. Recommendations are made regarding each treatment and its role in management. These recommendations are graded on the basis of the quality of supporting evidence and balance between the benefits and risks or burdens for each modality according to methodology stipulated by the American College of Chest Physicians. This is an updated version of the original guidelines published in Wilderness & Environmental Medicine 2011;22(2):156-166.
authors.affiliation: Division of Emergency Medicine, (Drs McIntosh and McDevitt). Electronic address: scott.mcintosh@hsc.utah.edu.
authors.forename: Scott E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: McIntosh
authors.affiliation: Department of Emergency Medicine, Maine Medical Center, Portland, ME (Dr Opacic).
authors.forename: Matthew
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Opacic
authors.affiliation: Everest Base Camp Medical Clinic, Nepal and Yellowstone National Park, WY (Dr Freer).
authors.forename: Luanne
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Freer
authors.affiliation: Division of Critical Care Medicine, Intermountain Medical Center (Dr Grissom).
authors.forename: Colin K
authors.initials: CK
authors.lastname: Grissom
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery, Division of Emergency Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine, Palo Alto, CA (Dr Auerbach).
authors.forename: Paul S
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: Auerbach
authors.affiliation: College of Nursing and School of Medicine (Dr Rodway).
authors.forename: George W
authors.initials: GW
authors.lastname: Rodway
authors.affiliation: Department of Surgery (Dr Cochran), University of Utah, Salt Lake City, UT.
authors.forename: Amalia
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Cochran
authors.affiliation: Health Leisure and Human Performance Research Institute, University of Manitoba, Winnipeg, Canada (Dr Giesbrecht).
authors.forename: Gordon G
authors.initials: GG
authors.lastname: Giesbrecht
authors.affiliation: Division of Emergency Medicine, (Drs McIntosh and McDevitt).
authors.forename: Marion
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: McDevitt
authors.affiliation: Warwick Medical School, University Hospital Coventry and Warwickshire NHS Trust, Coventry, UK (Dr Imray).
authors.forename: Christopher H
authors.initials: CH
authors.lastname: Imray
authors.affiliation: Teton Valley Hospital, Driggs, ID, and Clinical Faculty, University of Washington, WA (Dr Johnson).
authors.forename: Eric L
authors.initials: EL
authors.lastname: Johnson
authors.affiliation: Denali National Park and Preserve, AK (Dr Dow).
authors.forename: Jennifer
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Dow
authors.affiliation: Division of Emergency Medicine, Altitude Research Center, University of Colorado Denver School of Medicine, Denver, CO, and the Institute for Altitude Medicine, Telluride, CO (Dr Hackett).
authors.forename: Peter H
authors.initials: PH
authors.lastname: Hackett
mesh_terms: D005627:Frostbite / Q000145:classification* / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000628:therapy*; D006801:Humans; D010818:Practice Patterns, Physicians'; D012955:Societies, Medical; D055813:Wilderness Medicine / Q000592:standards
keywords: aloe vera; frostbite; frostbite prevention; hypothermia; rewarming; thrombolysis