title: Plastic responses of a sessile prey to multiple predators: a field and experimental study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Theory predicts that prey facing a combination of predators with different feeding modes have two options: to express a response against the feeding mode of the most dangerous predator, or to express an intermediate response. Intermediate phenotypes protect equally well against several feeding modes, rather than providing specific protection against a single predator. Anti-predator traits that protect against a common feeding mode displayed by all predators should be expressed regardless of predator combination, as there is no need for trade-offs.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We studied phenotypic anti-predator responses of zebra mussels to predation threat from a handling-time-limited (crayfish) and a gape-size-limited (roach) predator. Both predators dislodge mussels from the substrate but diverge in their further feeding modes. Mussels increased expression of a non-specific defense trait (attachment strength) against all combinations of predators relative to a control. In response to roach alone, mussels showed a tendency to develop a weaker and more elongated shell. In response to crayfish, mussels developed a harder and rounder shell. When exposed to either a combination of predators or no predator, mussels developed an intermediate phenotype. Mussel growth rate was positively correlated with an elongated weaker shell and negatively correlated with a round strong shell, indicating a trade-off between anti-predator responses. Field observations of prey phenotypes revealed the presence of both anti-predator phenotypes and the trade-off with growth, but intra-specific population density and bottom substrate had a greater influence than predator density.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results show that two different predators can exert both functionally equivalent and inverse selection pressures on a single prey. Our field study suggests that abiotic factors and prey population density should be considered when attempting to explain phenotypic diversity in the wild.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolution, Limnology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
authors.forename: Philipp Emanuel
authors.initials: PE
authors.lastname: Hirsch
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolution, Limnology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Cayon
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Evolution, Limnology, Evolutionary Biology Centre, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Svanbäck
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological; D000818:Animals; D001522:Behavior, Animal / Q000502:physiology*; D049872:Bivalvia / Q000502:physiology*; D017753:Ecosystem; D004777:Environment; D020387:Food Chain; D011157:Population Dynamics; D011235:Predatory Behavior / Q000502:physiology*