title: Turner syndrome: update on biology and management across the life span.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We review recent understanding of the pathophysiology, molecular biology, and management of Turner syndrome.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Sophisticated genetic techniques are able to detect mosaicism in one-third of individuals previously thought to have monosomy X. Prenatal detection using maternal blood should permit noninvasive detection of most fetuses with an X chromosome abnormality. Disproportionate growth with short limbs has been documented in this condition, and a target gene of short stature homeobox, connective tissue growth factor (Ctgf), has been described. Liver disease is more common in Turner syndrome than previously recognized. Most girls have gonadal failure. Spontaneous puberty and menarche is more commonly seen in girls with XX mosaicism. Low-dose estrogen replacement therapy may be given early to induce a more normal onset and tempo of puberty. Oocyte donation for assisted reproduction carries a substantial risk, particularly if the woman has known cardiac or aortic disease. Neurodevelopmental differences in Turner syndrome are beginning to be correlated with differences in brain anatomy.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  An increased understanding of the molecular basis for aspects of this disorder is now developing. In addition, a renewed focus on health maintenance through the life span should provide better general and targeted healthcare for these girls and women.
authors.affiliation: aPediatric Endocrine Unit, Department of Pediatrics, Massachusetts General Hospital bGenetics Residency Program, Harvard Medical School cBoston Children's Hospital dReproductive Endocrine Unit, Department of Medicine, Massachusetts General Hospital eGenetics Unit, Mass General Hospital for Children, Massachusetts, Boston, USA.
authors.forename: Lynne L
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: Levitsky
authors.forename: Anne H O'Donnell
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Luria
authors.forename: Frances J
authors.initials: FJ
authors.lastname: Hayes
authors.forename: Angela E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Lin
mesh_terms: D005260:Female; D059247:Fertility Preservation; D005817:Genetic Counseling; D006330:Heart Defects, Congenital / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000503:physiopathology*; D006801:Humans; D007247:Infertility, Female / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000503:physiopathology*; D007621:Karyotyping; D027724:Reproductive Techniques, Assisted; D014424:Turner Syndrome / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000235:genetics / Q000503:physiopathology*