title: Benefits and costs of ecological restoration: Rapid assessment of changing ecosystem service values at a U.K. wetland.
abstract: Restoration of degraded land is recognized by the international community as an important way of enhancing both biodiversity and ecosystem services, but more information is needed about its costs and benefits. In Cambridgeshire, U.K., a long-term initiative to convert drained, intensively farmed arable land to a wetland habitat mosaic is driven by a desire both to prevent biodiversity loss from the nationally important Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve (Wicken Fen NNR) and to increase the provision of ecosystem services. We evaluated the changes in ecosystem service delivery resulting from this land conversion, using a new Toolkit for Ecosystem Service Site-based Assessment (TESSA) to estimate biophysical and monetary values of ecosystem services provided by the restored wetland mosaic compared with the former arable land. Overall results suggest that restoration is associated with a net gain to society as a whole of $199 ha(-1)y(-1), for a one-off investment in restoration of $2320 ha(-1). Restoration has led to an estimated loss of arable production of $2040 ha(-1)y(-1), but estimated gains of $671 ha(-1)y(-1) in nature-based recreation, $120 ha(-1)y(-1) from grazing, $48 ha(-1)y(-1) from flood protection, and a reduction in greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions worth an estimated $72 ha(-1)y(-1). Management costs have also declined by an estimated $1325 ha(-1)y(-1). Despite uncertainties associated with all measured values and the conservative assumptions used, we conclude that there was a substantial gain to society as a whole from this land-use conversion. The beneficiaries also changed from local arable farmers under arable production to graziers, countryside users from towns and villages, and the global community, under restoration. We emphasize that the values reported here are not necessarily transferable to other sites.
authors.affiliation: Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, U.K ; Institute for Life Sciences, University of Southampton University Road, Southampton, SO17 1BJ, U.K.
authors.forename: Kelvin S-H
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Peh
authors.affiliation: Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, U.K.
authors.forename: Andrew
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Balmford
authors.affiliation: RSPB Centre for Conservation Science, RSPB, The Lodge Sandy, Bedfordshire, SG19 2DL, U.K.
authors.forename: Rob H
authors.initials: RH
authors.lastname: Field
authors.affiliation: Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge Downing Street, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, U.K.
authors.forename: Anthony
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Lamb
authors.affiliation: BirdLife International Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge, CB3 0NA, U.K.
authors.forename: Jennifer C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Birch
authors.affiliation: RSPB Centre for Conservation Science, RSPB, The Lodge Sandy, Bedfordshire, SG19 2DL, U.K.
authors.forename: Richard B
authors.initials: RB
authors.lastname: Bradbury
authors.affiliation: United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 0EL, U.K.
authors.forename: Claire
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Brown
authors.affiliation: BirdLife International Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge, CB3 0NA, U.K.
authors.forename: Stuart H M
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Butchart
authors.affiliation: National Trust, Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve Lode lane, Wicken, Cambridgeshire, CB7 5XP, U.K.
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Lester
authors.affiliation: Centre for Ecology and Hydrology Maclean Building, Crowmarsh Gifford, Wallingford, OX10 8BB, U.K ; Centre for Landscape and Climate Research and Department of Geography, University of Leicester University Road, Leicester, LE1 7RH, U.K.
authors.forename: Ross
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Morrison
authors.affiliation: National Trust, Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve Lode lane, Wicken, Cambridgeshire, CB7 5XP, U.K.
authors.forename: Isabel
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Sedgwick
authors.affiliation: National Trust, Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve Lode lane, Wicken, Cambridgeshire, CB7 5XP, U.K.
authors.forename: Chris
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Soans
authors.affiliation: BirdLife International Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge, CB3 0NA, U.K.
authors.forename: Alison J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Stattersfield
authors.affiliation: Botanical Society of Britain and Ireland, Botany Department, The Natural History Museum Cromwell Road, London, SW7 5BD, U.K.
authors.forename: Peter A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Stroh
authors.affiliation: Department of Geography, School of Sciences, Staffordshire University, Science Centre Leek Road, Stoke-on-Trent, ST4 2DF, U.K.
authors.forename: Ruth D
authors.initials: RD
authors.lastname: Swetnam
authors.affiliation: BirdLife International Wellbrook Court, Girton Road, Cambridge, CB3 0NA, U.K.
authors.forename: David H L
authors.initials: DH
authors.lastname: Thomas
authors.affiliation: United Nations Environment Programme World Conservation Monitoring Centre Huntingdon Road, Cambridge, CB3 0EL, U.K.
authors.forename: Matt
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Walpole
authors.affiliation: National Trust, Wicken Fen National Nature Reserve Lode lane, Wicken, Cambridgeshire, CB7 5XP, U.K.
authors.forename: Stuart
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Warrington
authors.affiliation: Animal and Environment Research Group, Department of Life Sciences, Anglia Ruskin University Cambridge, CB1 1PT, U.K.
authors.forename: Francine M R
authors.initials: FM
authors.lastname: Hughes
keywords: Arable production; biodiversity conservation; ecosystem services; flood protection; global climate change mitigation; nature-based recreation; wetland restoration