title: Cross-sectional and longitudinal effects of racism on mental health among residents of Black neighborhoods in New York City.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  We investigated the impact of reported racism on the mental health of African Americans at cross-sectional time points and longitudinally, over the course of 1 year.
  
  
  METHODS
  The Black Linking Inequality, Feelings, and the Environment (LIFE) Study recruited Black residents (n = 144) from a probability sample of 2 predominantly Black New York City neighborhoods during December 2011 to June 2013. Respondents completed self-report surveys, including multiple measures of racism. We conducted assessments at baseline, 2-month follow-up, and 1-year follow-up. Weighted multivariate linear regression models assessed changes in racism and health over time.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Cross-sectional results varied by time point and by outcome, with only some measures associated with distress, and effects were stronger for poor mental health days than for depression. Individuals who denied thinking about their race fared worst. Longitudinally, increasing frequencies of racism predicted worse mental health across all 3 outcomes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results support theories of racism as a health-defeating stressor and are among the few that show temporal associations with health.
authors.affiliation: Naa Oyo A. Kwate is with the Departments of Human Ecology and Africana Studies, Rutgers University, New Brunswick, NJ. Melody S. Goodman is with the Division of Public Health Sciences, Department of Surgery, School of Medicine, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO.
authors.forename: Naa Oyo A
authors.initials: NO
authors.lastname: Kwate
authors.forename: Melody S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Goodman
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001741:Black or African American / Q000523:psychology*; D000367:Age Factors; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008603:Mental Health; D008875:Middle Aged; D009519:New York City / Q000453:epidemiology; D063505:Racism / Q000523:psychology*; D012111:Residence Characteristics; D012737:Sex Factors; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors