title: Alcohol intake, hypertension development and mortality in black South Africans.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Excessive alcohol intake is a risk factor for cardiovascular disease (CVD) and predicts cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. We determined which alcohol marker (self-reported alcohol intake, gamma-glutamyltransferase (GGT) or percentage carbohydrate deficient transferrin (%CDT)) relates best with mortality and predicts hypertension development over five years in black South Africans.
  
  
  METHODS
  This was a longitudinal study as part of the PURE (Prospective Urban and Rural Epidemiology) study in the North West Province, South Africa.
  
  
  METHODS
  We included 2010 participants and followed 1471 participants. Over five years, 230 deaths occurred, of which 66 were cardiovascular-related. At enrolment, participants completed questionnaires on alcohol intake (yes, for former and current use; no, for alcohol never used). We measured blood pressure, collected blood samples and measured GGT and %CDT.
  
  
  RESULTS
  When comparing hazard ratios (HRs) of self-report, GGT and %CDT, we found that only GGT predicted cardiovascular (HR = 2.76 (1.49-5.12)) and all-cause mortality (HR = 2.47 (1.75-3.47)) and hypertension development ((HR = 1.31 (1.06-1.62)). Participants self-reporting yes for alcohol intake had a 30% increased risk of developing hypertension (HR = 1.30 (1.07-1.60)) but not an increased risk for mortality. When adding both GGT and self-report in the prediction model for hypertension, only self-reporting of alcohol was significant (HR = 1.24 (1.01-1.53)). The alcohol marker, %CDT, did not show any significant association with mortality or hypertension development.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  GGT independently predicted cardiovascular and all-cause mortality, as well as hypertension development in black South Africans. Despite non-specificity to excessive alcohol consumption, GGT may be a useful general marker for hypertension development and mortality, also due to its significant association with self-reported alcohol intake.
authors.affiliation: Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, South Africa Medical Research Council: Research Unit for Hypertension and Cardiovascular Disease, Faculty of Health Sciences, North-West University, South Africa Department of Physiology, University of Limpopo (Medunsa), South Africa.
authors.forename: Mandlenkosi C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Zatu
authors.affiliation: Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, South Africa.
authors.forename: Johannes M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Van Rooyen
authors.affiliation: Africa Unit for Transdisciplinary Health Research (AUTHeR), North-West University, South Africa.
authors.forename: Annamarie
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kruger
authors.affiliation: Hypertension in Africa Research Team (HART), North-West University, South Africa Alta.Schutte@nwu.ac.za.
authors.forename: Aletta E
authors.initials: AE
authors.lastname: Schutte
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000097:blood / Q000208:ethnology*; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000097:blood; D044383:Black People; D001794:Blood Pressure; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006973:Hypertension / Q000097:blood / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000208:ethnology* / Q000401:mortality* / Q000503:physiopathology; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D011446:Prospective Studies; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012307:Risk Factors; D013019:South Africa / Q000453:epidemiology; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013997:Time Factors; D014168:Transferrin / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000032:analysis; D005723:gamma-Glutamyltransferase / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D014168:Transferrin; C056759:carbohydrate-deficient transferrin; D005723:gamma-Glutamyltransferase; C554782:gamma-glutamyltransferase, human
keywords: Gamma-glutamyltransferase; cardiovascular disease; hypertension; morbidity; percentage carbohydrate deficient transferrin; self-reported alcohol intake; sub-Saharan Africa