title: The role of growth factors in stem cell-directed chondrogenesis: a real hope for damaged cartilage regeneration.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The use of stem cells in regenerative medicine offers hope to treat numerous orthopaedic disorders, including articular cartilage defects. Although much research has been carried out on chondrogenesis, this complicated process is still not well understood and much more research is needed. The present review provides an overview of the stages of chondrogenesis and describes the effects of various growth factors, which act during the multiple steps involved in stem cell-directed differentiation towards chondrocytes.
  
  
  METHODS
  The current literature on stem cell-directed chondrogenesis, in particular the role of members of the transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β) superfamily-TGF-βs, bone morphogenetic proteins (BMPs) and fibroblast growth factors (FGFs)-is reviewed and discussed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Numerous studies have reported the chondrogenic potential of both adult- and embryonic-like stem cells and the role of growth factors in programming differentiation of these cells towards chondrocytes. Mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs) are adult multipotent stem cells, whereas induced pluripotent stem cells (iPSC) are reprogrammed pluripotent cells. Although better understanding of the processes involved in the development of cartilage tissues is necessary, both cell types may be of value in the clinical treatment of cartilage injuries or osteoarthritic cartilage lesions.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  MSCs and iPSCs both present unique characteristics. However, at present, it is still unclear which cell type is most suitable in the treatment of cartilage injuries.
authors.affiliation: Radiobiology Lab, Greater Poland Cancer Centre, Poznan, Poland.
authors.forename: Ewelina
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Augustyniak
authors.forename: Tomasz
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Trzeciak
authors.forename: Magdalena
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Richter
authors.forename: Jacek
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kaczmarczyk
authors.forename: Wiktoria
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Suchorska
mesh_terms: D019485:Bone Morphogenetic Proteins / Q000494:pharmacology; D002358:Cartilage, Articular / Q000293:injuries* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D002454:Cell Differentiation / Q000502:physiology; D019902:Chondrocytes / Q000378:metabolism; D020219:Chondrogenesis / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D057026:Induced Pluripotent Stem Cells / Q000502:physiology*; D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins / Q000378:metabolism / Q000502:physiology*; D059630:Mesenchymal Stem Cells / Q000502:physiology; D012038:Regeneration / Q000502:physiology*; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000502:physiology; D016212:Transforming Growth Factor beta / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D019485:Bone Morphogenetic Proteins; D036341:Intercellular Signaling Peptides and Proteins; D016212:Transforming Growth Factor beta