title: Post-translational modifications on yeast carbon metabolism: Regulatory mechanisms beyond transcriptional control.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Yeast cells have developed a variety of mechanisms to regulate the activity of metabolic enzymes in order to adjust their metabolism in response to genetic and environmental perturbations. This can be achieved by a massive reprogramming of gene expression. However, the transcriptional response cannot explain the complexity of metabolic regulation, and mRNA stability regulation, non-covalent binding of allosteric effectors and post-translational modifications of enzymes (such as phosphorylation, acetylation and ubiquitination) are also involved, especially as short term responses, all converging in modulating enzyme activity.
  
  
  METHODS
  The functional significance of post-translational modifications (PTMs) to the regulation of the central carbon metabolism is the subject of this review.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A genome wide analysis of PTMs indicates that several metabolic enzymes are subjected to multiple PTMs, suggesting that yeast cells can use different modifications and/or combinations of them to specifically respond to environmental changes. Glycolysis and fermentation are the pathways where phosphorylation, acetylation and ubiquitination are most frequent, while enzymes of storage carbohydrate metabolism are especially phosphorylated. Interestingly, some enzymes, such as the 6-phosphofructo-2-kinase Pfk26, the phosphofructokinases Pfk1 and Pfk2 and the pyruvate kinase Cdc19, are hubs of PTMs, thus representing central key regulation nodes. For the functionally better characterized enzymes, the role of phosphorylations and lysine modifications is discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This review focuses on the regulatory mechanisms of yeast carbon metabolism, highlighting the requirement of quantitative, systematical studies to better understand PTM contribution to metabolic regulation.
authors.affiliation: SYSBIO, Centre of Systems Biology, Milan, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.zza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy. Electronic address: farida.tripodi1@unimib.it.
authors.forename: Farida
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Tripodi
authors.affiliation: SYSBIO, Centre of Systems Biology, Milan, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.zza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy.
authors.forename: Raffaele
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Nicastro
authors.affiliation: SYSBIO, Centre of Systems Biology, Milan, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.zza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy.
authors.forename: Veronica
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Reghellin
authors.affiliation: SYSBIO, Centre of Systems Biology, Milan, Italy; Department of Biotechnology and Biosciences, University of Milano-Bicocca, P.zza della Scienza 2, 20126 Milano, Italy.
authors.forename: Paola
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Coccetti
mesh_terms: D000494:Allosteric Regulation; D002244:Carbon / Q000378:metabolism*; D005285:Fermentation; D005943:Gluconeogenesis; D006019:Glycolysis; D010766:Phosphorylation; D011499:Protein Processing, Post-Translational; D020871:RNA Stability; D012441:Saccharomyces cerevisiae / Q000378:metabolism*; D014158:Transcription, Genetic
chemical_list: D002244:Carbon
keywords: Acetylation; Glycolysis; PKA; Phosphorylation; Saccharomyces cerevisiae; Ubiquitination