title: Associations between general parenting, restrictive snacking rules, and adolescent's snack intake. The roles of fathers and mothers and interparental congruence.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Little research has been done on the role of fathers and parenting congruence between mothers and fathers. This study aimed to clarify the roles of general parenting and restrictive snacking rules set by fathers and mothers, and to explore parenting congruence in explaining adolescents' snack intake.
  
  
  METHODS
  Adolescents aged 11 to 15 completed a questionnaire assessing their perception of general parenting constructs (i.e. nurturance, structure, behavioral control, coercive control, and overprotection), restrictive snacking rules set by their fathers and mothers, and their own energy-dense snack intakes between meals.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Scores for mothers were significantly higher on all constructs than for fathers, except for coercive control. Generally, higher scores on general parenting constructs were associated with higher scores on restrictive snacking rules (most of the associations being significant). Most general parenting constructs were unrelated to the respondents' number of snacks consumed. The use of restrictive snacking rules by both fathers and mothers was significantly and negatively related to respondents' snack intake. Moderation analyses indicated that high levels of incongruence between parents attenuated the favorable impact of fathers' rules and nurturance on their children's snacking, but interactions of congruence with three other paternal scales and all maternal scales were absent.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings indicate that both paternal and maternal general parenting and restrictive snacking rules play important roles in adolescents' snacking, and that high parental incongruence regarding restrictive snacking rules and nurturance could be undesirable.
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Promotion, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, P.O. Box 616 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands. Electronic address: dorus.gevers@maastrichtuniversity.nl.
authors.forename: Dorus W M
authors.initials: DW
authors.lastname: Gevers
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Promotion, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, P.O. Box 616 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Patricia
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: van Assema
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Promotion, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, P.O. Box 616 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Ester F C
authors.initials: EF
authors.lastname: Sleddens
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Promotion, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, P.O. Box 616 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands; Department of Health Promotion, CAPHRI School for Public Health and Primary Care, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, P.O. Box 616 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Nanne K
authors.initials: NK
authors.lastname: de Vries
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Promotion, NUTRIM School of Nutrition and Translational Research in Metabolism, Maastricht University Medical Centre+, P.O. Box 616 6200 MD, Maastricht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Stef P J
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Kremers
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior / Q000523:psychology*; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002648:Child; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D002149:Energy Intake; D005220:Fathers / Q000523:psychology*; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D015438:Health Behavior; D006801:Humans; D016015:Logistic Models; D008297:Male; D009035:Mothers / Q000523:psychology*; D010287:Parent-Child Relations; D016487:Parenting / Q000523:psychology*; D062410:Snacks / Q000523:psychology*; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
keywords: Child's dietary behavior; Food parenting practices; General parenting; Snacking