title: The impact of anticipated and unanticipated smoking opportunities on cigarette smoking and nicotine lozenge responses.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Perceptions regarding the availability of smoking opportunities are known to affect cigarette craving; however, whether they impact actual smoking or how smokers respond to acute nicotine replacement therapy (NRT) administration is not known. This study examined the impact of pharmacological and expectancy components of NRT administration on craving and smoking in smokers anticipating or not anticipating an imminent smoking opportunity.
  
  
  METHODS
  In total, 154 smokers (84 male) completed an experimental session in which instructions regarding the nicotine content of a lozenge (4 mg vs. no nicotine) and regarding the availability of a future smoking opportunity were manipulated. Cigarette craving was assessed before and after manipulations and lozenge administration. All participants were then allotted 1h to self-administer as many cigarette puffs as they wished.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Unanticipated smoking opportunities reduced latency to self-administration (p<0.001), regardless of nicotine expectancy or pharmacology. When analyses included all participants, nicotine reduced intentions to smoke (p=0.016) and withdrawal-related craving (p=0.043) regardless of expectancy. Conversely, analyses using only "believers" of the nicotine content instructions revealed that nicotine expectancy reduced intentions to smoke (p=0.034) and withdrawal-related craving (p=0.047) regardless of actual nicotine administration. "Believers" also reported increased withdrawal-related craving when a smoking opportunity was perceived to be imminent (p=0.041). These effects were not significant when analyses included all participants.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Findings suggest that unexpected smoking opportunities may be more appealing than expected ones regardless of perceived or actual acute NRT use. They also highlight the importance of reporting balanced placebo findings using all participants as well as "believers" only.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2.
authors.forename: Hera E
authors.initials: HE
authors.lastname: Schlagintweit
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2.
authors.forename: Holly
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Greer
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2; Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 2E2.
authors.forename: Kimberley P
authors.initials: KP
authors.lastname: Good
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neuroscience, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 4R2; Department of Psychiatry, Dalhousie University, Halifax, Nova Scotia, Canada B3H 2E2. Electronic address: sean.barrett@dal.ca.
authors.forename: Sean P
authors.initials: SP
authors.lastname: Barrett
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D059031:Anticipation, Psychological; D066249:Craving / Q000187:drug effects; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009538:Nicotine / Q000008:administration & dosage; D011897:Random Allocation; D012646:Self Administration; D012907:Smoking / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000523:psychology*; D016540:Smoking Cessation / Q000379:methods / Q000523:psychology*; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D061485:Tobacco Use Cessation Devices; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D009538:Nicotine
keywords: Craving; Expectancy; Nicotine; Self-administration