title: Element composition and mineralogical characterisation of air pollution control residue from UK energy-from-waste facilities.
abstract: Air pollution control (APC) residues from energy-from-waste (EfW) are alkaline (corrosive) and contain high concentrations of metals, such as zinc and lead, and soluble salts, such as chlorides and sulphates. The EPA 3050B-extractable concentrations of 66 elements, including critical elements of strategic importance for advanced electronics and energy technologies, were determined in eight APC residues from six UK EfW facilities. The concentrations of Ag (6-15 mg/kg) and In (1-13 mg/kg), as well as potential pollutants, especially Zn (0.26-0.73 wt.%), Pb (0.05-0.2 wt.%), As, Cd, Cu, Mo, Sb, Sn and Se were found to be enriched in all APC residues compared to average crustal abundances. Results from a combination of scanning electron microscopy with energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy and also powder X-ray diffraction, thermal analysis and Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy give an exceptionally full understanding of the mineralogy of these residues, which is discussed in the context of other results in the literature. The present work has shown that the bulk of the crystalline phases present in the investigated APC residues include Ca-based phases, such as CaCl(x)OH(2-x), CaCO3, Ca(OH)2, CaSO4, and CaO, as well as soluble salts, such as NaCl and KCl. Poorly-crystalline aragonite was identified by FTIR. Sulphur appears to have complex redox speciation, presenting as both anhydrite and hannebachite in some UK EfW APC residues. Hazardous elements (Zn and Pb) were widely associated with soluble Ca- and Cl-bearing phases (e.g. CaCl(x)OH(2-x) and sylvite), as well as unburnt organic matter and aluminosilicates. Specific metal-bearing minerals were also detected in some samples: e.g., Pb present as cerussite; Zn in gahnite, zincowoodwardite and copper nickel zinc oxide; Cu in tenorite, copper nickel zinc oxide and fedotovite. Aluminium foil pieces were present and abundantly covered by fine phases, particularly in any cracks, probably in the form of Friedel's salt.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Resource Efficiency & the Environment (CREE), Department of Civil, Environmental & Geomatic Engineering (CEGE), University College London (UCL), Chadwick Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Bogush
authors.affiliation: Centre for Resource Efficiency & the Environment (CREE), Department of Civil, Environmental & Geomatic Engineering (CEGE), University College London (UCL), Chadwick Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK. Electronic address: j.stegemann@ucl.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Julia A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Stegemann
authors.affiliation: Department of Earth Sciences, University College London (UCL), Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
authors.forename: Ian
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Wood
authors.affiliation: J. Bennett Johnston, Sr., Center for Advanced Microstructures & Devices, Louisiana State University, 6980 Jefferson Hwy, Baton Rouge, LA 70806, USA.
authors.forename: Amitava
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Roy
mesh_terms: D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000737:chemistry*; D060729:Coal Ash / Q000032:analysis*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D017745:Incineration; D006113:United Kingdom
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D060729:Coal Ash
keywords: Air pollution control residue (APC); Energy from waste; Waste characterisation; Waste to energy (WtE)