title: Improved method for measuring transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) and their precursors in fresh and saline water.
abstract: Transparent exopolymer particles (TEP) and their precursors produced by phyto-/bacterio-planktons in fresh and marine aquatic environments are increasingly considered as a major contributor to organic/particulate and biological fouling in micro-/ultra-filtration and reverse osmosis membrane (RO) systems. However, currently established methods which are based on Alcian blue (AB) staining and spectrophotometric techniques do not measure TEP-precursors and have the tendency to overestimate concentration in brackish/saline water samples due to interference of salinity on AB staining. Here we propose a new semi-quantitative method which allows measurement of both TEP and their colloidal precursors without the interference of salinity. TEP and their precursors are first retained on 10 kDa membrane, rinsed with ultra-pure water, and re-suspended in ultra-pure water by sonication and stained with AB, followed by exclusion of TEP-AB precipitates by filtration and absorbance measurement of residual AB. The concentration is then determined based on the reduction of AB absorbance due to reaction with acidic polysaccharides, blank correction and calibration with Xanthan gum standard. The extraction procedure allows concentration of TEP and their pre-cursors which makes it possible to analyse samples with a wide range of concentrations (down to <0.1 mg Xeq/L). This was demonstrated through application of the method for monitoring these compounds in algal cultures and a full-scale RO plant. The monitoring also revealed that concentrations of the colloidal precursors were substantially higher than the concentration of TEP themselves. In the RO plant, complete TEP removal was observed over the pre-treatment processes (coagulation-sedimentation-filtration and ultrafiltration) but the TEP precursors were not completely removed, emphasising the importance of measuring this colloidal component to better understand the role of TEP and acidic polysaccharides in RO membrane fouling.
authors.affiliation: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, Netherlands; Wetsus Center of Excellence for Sustainable Water Technology, Agora 1, 8934 CJ Leeuwarden, Netherlands. Electronic address: l.villacorte@unesco-ihe.org.
authors.forename: Loreen O
authors.initials: LO
authors.lastname: Villacorte
authors.affiliation: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, Netherlands.
authors.forename: Yuli
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Ekowati
authors.affiliation: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, Netherlands.
authors.forename: Helga N
authors.initials: HN
authors.lastname: Calix-Ponce
authors.affiliation: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jan C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Schippers
authors.affiliation: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, Netherlands; Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, Netherlands; Water Desalination and Reuse Research Center, 4700 Kaust, Thuwal, Saudi Arabia.
authors.forename: Gary L
authors.initials: GL
authors.lastname: Amy
authors.affiliation: UNESCO-IHE Institute for Water Education, Westvest 7, 2611 AX Delft, Netherlands; Delft University of Technology, Stevinweg 1, 2628 CN Delft, Netherlands.
authors.forename: Maria D
authors.initials: MD
authors.lastname: Kennedy
mesh_terms: D000423:Alcian Blue / Q000737:chemistry*; D057219:Biofouling; D003102:Colloids / Q000032:analysis*; D004784:Environmental Monitoring / Q000379:methods*; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000032:analysis*; D011108:Polymers / Q000032:analysis*; D011134:Polysaccharides / Q000737:chemistry; D000068357:Saline Waters / Q000032:analysis*; D018508:Water Purification
chemical_list: D003102:Colloids; D011108:Polymers; D011134:Polysaccharides; D000423:Alcian Blue
keywords: Acid polysaccharides; Algal blooms; Algal organic matter; Membrane fouling; Transparent exopolymer particles (TEP); Water treatment