title: Greenhouse gas emission of diets in the Netherlands and associations with food, energy and macronutrient intakes.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  To evaluate the greenhouse gas emission (GHGE) of diets in Dutch girls, boys, women and men and to explore associations with diet composition.
  
  
  METHODS
  Descriptive analyses for the total population as well as stratified for gender, age and dietary environmental load.
  
  
  METHODS
  The Netherlands.
  
  
  METHODS
  Dutch children and adults aged 7-69 years (n 3818).
  
  
  RESULTS
  The GHGE of daily diets was on average 3·2 kg CO2-equivalents (CO2e) for girls, 3·6 kg CO2e for boys, 3·7 kg CO2e for women and 4·8 kg CO2e for men. Meat and cheese contributed about 40 % and drinks (including milk and alcoholic drinks) 20 % to daily GHGE. Considerable differences in environmental loads of diets existed within age and gender groups. Persons with higher-GHGE diets consumed more (in quantity of foods and especially drinks) than their counterparts of a similar sex and age with low-GHGE diets. Major differences between high- and low-GHGE diets were in meat, cheese and dairy consumption as well as in soft drinks (girls, boys and women) and alcoholic drinks (men). Of those, differences in meat consumption determined the differences in GHGE most. Diets with higher GHGE were associated with higher saturated fat intake and lower fibre intake
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  GHGE of daily diets in the Netherlands is between 3 and 5 kg CO2e, with considerable differences between individuals. Meat, dairy and drinks contribute most to GHGE. The insights of the study may be used in developing (age- and gender-specific) food-based dietary guidelines that take into account both health and sustainability aspects.
authors.affiliation: 1National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM),PO Box 1,3720 BA Bilthoven,The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Elisabeth H M
authors.initials: EH
authors.lastname: Temme
authors.affiliation: 1National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM),PO Box 1,3720 BA Bilthoven,The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Ido B
authors.initials: IB
authors.lastname: Toxopeus
authors.affiliation: 2Blonk Consultants,Gouda,The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Gerard F H
authors.initials: GF
authors.lastname: Kramer
authors.affiliation: 1National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM),PO Box 1,3720 BA Bilthoven,The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Marinka C C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Brosens
authors.affiliation: 1National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM),PO Box 1,3720 BA Bilthoven,The Netherlands.
authors.forename: José M M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Drijvers
authors.affiliation: 2Blonk Consultants,Gouda,The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Marcelo
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Tyszler
authors.affiliation: 1National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM),PO Box 1,3720 BA Bilthoven,The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Marga C
authors.initials: MC
authors.lastname: Ocké
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D001628:Beverages / Q000009:adverse effects; D002648:Child; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D003611:Dairy Products / Q000009:adverse effects; D004032:Diet / Q000009:adverse effects; D002149:Energy Intake; D058735:Environmental Policy; D005260:Female; D005523:Food Supply; D017752:Greenhouse Effect; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008460:Meat / Q000009:adverse effects; D009426:Netherlands; D018673:Nutrition Policy; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D010349:Patient Compliance; D015397:Program Evaluation
keywords: Food consumption; Greenhouse gas emissions; Nutrients; Sustainability