title: Discovery of a novel coronavirus, China Rattus coronavirus HKU24, from Norway rats supports the murine origin of Betacoronavirus 1 and has implications for the ancestor of Betacoronavirus lineage A.
abstract: We discovered a novel Betacoronavirus lineage A coronavirus, China Rattus coronavirus (ChRCoV) HKU24, from Norway rats in China. ChRCoV HKU24 occupied a deep branch at the root of members of Betacoronavirus 1, being distinct from murine coronavirus and human coronavirus HKU1. Its unique putative cleavage sites between nonstructural proteins 1 and 2 and in the spike (S) protein and low sequence identities to other lineage A betacoronaviruses (βCoVs) in conserved replicase domains support ChRCoV HKU24 as a separate species. ChRCoV HKU24 possessed genome features that resemble those of both Betacoronavirus 1 and murine coronavirus, being closer to Betacoronavirus 1 in most predicted proteins but closer to murine coronavirus by G+C content, the presence of a single nonstructural protein (NS4), and an absent transcription regulatory sequence for the envelope (E) protein. Its N-terminal domain (NTD) demonstrated higher sequence identity to the bovine coronavirus (BCoV) NTD than to the mouse hepatitis virus (MHV) NTD, with 3 of 4 critical sugar-binding residues in BCoV and 2 of 14 contact residues at the MHV NTD/murine CEACAM1a interface being conserved. Molecular clock analysis dated the time of the most recent common ancestor of ChRCoV HKU24, Betacoronavirus 1, and rabbit coronavirus HKU14 to about the year 1400. Cross-reactivities between other lineage A and B βCoVs and ChRCoV HKU24 nucleocapsid but not spike polypeptide were demonstrated. Using the spike polypeptide-based Western blot assay, we showed that only Norway rats and two oriental house rats from Guangzhou, China, were infected by ChRCoV HKU24. Other rats, including Norway rats from Hong Kong, possessed antibodies only against N protein and not against the spike polypeptide, suggesting infection by βCoVs different from ChRCoV HKU24. ChRCoV HKU24 may represent the murine origin of Betacoronavirus 1, and rodents are likely an important reservoir for ancestors of lineage A βCoVs.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  While bats and birds are hosts for ancestors of most coronaviruses (CoVs), lineage A βCoVs have never been found in these animals and the origin of Betacoronavirus lineage A remains obscure. We discovered a novel lineage A βCoV, China Rattus coronavirus HKU24 (ChRCoV HKU24), from Norway rats in China with a high seroprevalence. The unique genome features and phylogenetic analysis supported the suggestion that ChRCoV HKU24 represents a novel CoV species, occupying a deep branch at the root of members of Betacoronavirus 1 and being distinct from murine coronavirus. Nevertheless, ChRCoV HKU24 possessed genome characteristics that resemble those of both Betacoronavirus 1 and murine coronavirus. Our data suggest that ChRCoV HKU24 represents the murine origin of Betacoronavirus 1, with interspecies transmission from rodents to other mammals having occurred centuries ago, before the emergence of human coronavirus (HCoV) OC43 in the late 1800s. Rodents are likely an important reservoir for ancestors of lineage A βCoVs.
authors.affiliation: State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Susanna K P
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Lau
authors.affiliation: State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Patrick C Y
authors.initials: PC
authors.lastname: Woo
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Kenneth S M
authors.initials: KS
authors.lastname: Li
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Alan K L
authors.initials: AK
authors.lastname: Tsang
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Rachel Y Y
authors.initials: RY
authors.lastname: Fan
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Hayes K H
authors.initials: HK
authors.lastname: Luk
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Jian-Piao
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Cai
authors.affiliation: Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Kwok-Hung
authors.initials: KH
authors.lastname: Chan
authors.affiliation: State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China.
authors.forename: Bo-Jian
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Zheng
authors.affiliation: Guangzhou Center for Disease Control and Prevention, Guangzhou, China.
authors.forename: Ming
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: State Key Laboratory of Emerging Infectious Diseases, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Research Centre of Infection and Immunology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Carol Yu Centre for Infection, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China Department of Microbiology, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China kyyuen@hkucc.hku.hk.
authors.forename: Kwok-Yung
authors.initials: KY
authors.lastname: Yuen
mesh_terms: D000595:Amino Acid Sequence; D000818:Animals; D002417:Cattle; D003332:Coronaviridae / Q000737:chemistry / Q000145:classification* / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D003333:Coronaviridae Infections / Q000662:veterinary* / Q000821:virology; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D016679:Genome, Viral; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D010802:Phylogeny; D011817:Rabbits; D051381:Rats / Q000821:virology*; D012376:Rodent Diseases / Q000821:virology*; D016415:Sequence Alignment; D014764:Viral Proteins / Q000737:chemistry / Q000235:genetics
chemical_list: D014764:Viral Proteins