title: Caffeine increases sugar-sweetened beverage consumption in a free-living population: a randomised controlled trial.
abstract: Excessive sugar-sweetened beverage (SSB) consumption has been associated with overweight and obesity. Caffeine is a common additive to SSB, and through dependence effects, it has the potential to promote the consumption of caffeine-containing foods. The objective of the present study was to assess the influence that caffeine has on the consumption of SSB. Participants (n 99) were blindly assigned to either a caffeinated SSB (C-SSB) or a non-caffeinated SSB (NC-SSB) group. Following randomisation, all participants completed a 9 d flavour-conditioning paradigm. They then completed a 28 d ad libitum intake intervention where they consumed as much or as little of C-SSB or NC-SSB as desired. The amount consumed (ml) was recorded daily, 4 d diet diaries were collected and liking of SSB was assessed at the start and end of the intervention. Participants (n 50) consuming the C-SSB had a daily SSB intake of 419 (sd 298) ml (785 (sd 559) kJ/d) over the 28 d intervention, significantly more than participants (n 49) consuming the NC-SSB (273 (sd 278) ml/d, 512 (sd 521) kJ/d) (P=0.05). However, participants who consumed the C-SSB liked the SSB more than those who consumed the NC-SSB (6.3 v. 6.0 on a nine-point hedonic scale, P= 0.022). The addition of low concentrations of caffeine to the SSB significantly increases the consumption of the SSB. Regulating caffeine as a food additive may be an effective strategy to decrease the consumption of nutrient-poor high-energy foods and beverages.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University,221 Burwood Highway,Burwood,VIC3125,Australia.
authors.forename: Russell S J
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Keast
authors.affiliation: WHO Collaborating Centre for Obesity Prevention, Deakin University,221 Burwood Highway,Burwood,VIC3125,Australia.
authors.forename: Boyd A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Swinburn
authors.affiliation: Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University,221 Burwood Highway,Burwood,VIC3125,Australia.
authors.forename: Dhoungsiri
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Sayompark
authors.affiliation: Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University,221 Burwood Highway,Burwood,VIC3125,Australia.
authors.forename: Susie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Whitelock
authors.affiliation: Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University,221 Burwood Highway,Burwood,VIC3125,Australia.
authors.forename: Lynn J
authors.initials: LJ
authors.lastname: Riddell
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002110:Caffeine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D002253:Carbonated Beverages / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000032:analysis*; D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants / Q000009:adverse effects*; D015930:Diet Records; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D005260:Female; D005503:Food Additives / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005518:Food Preferences; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D018673:Nutrition Policy; D064427:Nutritive Sweeteners / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000009:adverse effects; D009765:Obesity / Q000209:etiology; D050177:Overweight / Q000209:etiology; D014739:Victoria; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000697:Central Nervous System Stimulants; D005503:Food Additives; D064427:Nutritive Sweeteners; D002110:Caffeine
keywords: Caffeine; Free-living populations; Sugar-sweetened beverages