title: Inhibitory effect of zingiber officinale towards Streptococcus mutans virulence and caries development: in vitro and in vivo studies.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Streptococcus mutans is known as a key causative agent of dental caries. It metabolizes dietary carbohydrate to produce acids which reduce the environmental pH leading to tooth demineralization. The ability of this bacterium to tolerate acids coupled with acid production, allows its effective colonization in the oral cavity leading to the establishment of highly cariogenic plaque. For this reason, S. mutans is the only bacterium found in significantly higher numbers than other bacteria in the dental plaque. The aim of this study was to evaluate the effect of crude extract and methanolic fraction of Z. officinale against S. mutans virulence properties.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We investigated in vitro and in vivo activity of crude extract and methanolic fraction at sub- MIC levels against cariogenic properties of S. mutans. We found that these extracts strongly inhibited a variety of virulence properties which are critical for its pathogenesis. The biofilm formation in S. mutans was found to be reduced during critical growth phases. Furthermore, the glucan synthesis and adherence was also found to be inhibited. Nevertheless, the insoluble glucan synthesis and sucrose dependent adherence were apparently more reduced as compared to soluble glucan synthesis and sucrose- independent adherence. Biofilm architecture inspected with the help of confocal and scanning electron microscopy, showed dispersion of cells in the treated group as compared to the control. The Quantitative Real Time PCR (qRT-PCR) data had shown the down regulation of the virulence genes, which is believed to be one of the major reasons responsible for the observed reduction in the virulence properties. The incredible reduction of caries development was found in treated group of rats as compared to the untreated group which further validate our in vitro data.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The whole study concludes a prospective role of crude extract and methanolic fraction of Z. officinale in targeting complete array of cariogenic properties of S. mutans, thus reducing its pathogenesis. Hence, it may be strongly proposed as a putative anti- cariogenic agent.
authors.affiliation: Medical Microbiology and Molecular Biology lab. Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, 202002, Aligarh, India. sadaf11hasan@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Sadaf
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Hasan
authors.affiliation: Medical Microbiology and Molecular Biology lab. Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, 202002, Aligarh, India. danishuddin.danish@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Mohd
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Danishuddin
authors.affiliation: Medical Microbiology and Molecular Biology lab. Interdisciplinary Biotechnology Unit, Aligarh Muslim University, 202002, Aligarh, India. asad.k@rediffmail.com.
authors.forename: Asad U
authors.initials: AU
authors.lastname: Khan
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001422:Bacterial Adhesion / Q000187:drug effects; D018441:Biofilms / Q000187:drug effects / Q000254:growth & development; D003731:Dental Caries / Q000517:prevention & control*; D004195:Disease Models, Animal; D015870:Gene Expression / Q000187:drug effects; D020869:Gene Expression Profiling; D020939:Zingiber officinale / Q000737:chemistry*; D005936:Glucans / Q000378:metabolism; D018613:Microscopy, Confocal; D008855:Microscopy, Electron, Scanning; D010936:Plant Extracts / Q000302:isolation & purification / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D051381:Rats; D060888:Real-Time Polymerase Chain Reaction; D013295:Streptococcus mutans / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology; D014774:Virulence / Q000187:drug effects
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents; D005936:Glucans; D010936:Plant Extracts