title: Neuroprotective effect of astaxanthin against rat retinal ganglion cell death under various stresses that induce apoptosis and necrosis.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Astaxanthin is a type of carotenoid known to have strong antioxidant effects. The purpose of this study was to investigate whether astaxanthin confers a neuroprotective effect against glutamate stress, oxidative stress, and hypoxia-induced apoptotic or necrotic cell death in primary cultures of rat retinal ganglion cells (RGCs).
  
  
  METHODS
  Purified rat RGCs were exposed to three kinds of stressors induced by 25 μM glutamate for 72 h, B27 medium without an antioxidant for 4 h, and a reduced oxygen level of 5% for 12 h. Each assay was repeated 12 times, with or without 1 nM, 10 nM, and 100 nM astaxanthin. The number of live RGCs was then counted using a cell viability assay. RGC viability in each condition was evaluated and compared with controls. In addition, we measured apoptosis and DNA damage.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that under glutamate stress, RGC viability was reduced to 58%. Cultures with 1 nM, 10 nM, and 100 nM astaxanthin showed an increase in RGC viability of 63%, 74%, and 84%, respectively. Under oxidative stress, RGC viability was reduced to 40%, and astaxanthin administration resulted in increased viability of 43%, 50%, and 67%, respectively. Under hypoxia, RGC viability was reduced to 66%, and astaxanthin administration resulted in a significant increase in viability to 67%, 77%, and 93%, respectively. These results indicate that 100 nM astaxanthin leads to a statistically significant increase in RGC viability under the three kinds of stressors tested, compared to controls (Dunnett's test, p<0.05). The apoptotic activity of RGCs under glutamate stress increased to 32%, but was reduced to 15% with 100 nM astaxanthin administration. Glutamate stress led to a 58% increase in DNA damage, which was reduced to 43% when cultured with 100 nM astaxanthin. Thus, 100 nM astaxanthin showed a statistically significant reduction in apoptosis and DNA damage in RGCs (Wilcoxon rank-sum test, p<0.05).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that astaxanthin has a neuroprotective effect against RGC death induced by glutamate stress, oxidative stress, and hypoxia, which induce apoptotic and necrotic cell death.
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tokyo School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Reiko
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Yamagishi
authors.affiliation: Department of Ophthalmology, University of Tokyo School of Medicine, Tokyo, Japan ; Shirato Eye Clinic, Tokyo, Japan.
authors.forename: Makoto
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Aihara
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000494:pharmacology; D017209:Apoptosis / Q000187:drug effects; D015687:Cell Hypoxia; D002470:Cell Survival / Q000187:drug effects; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D018698:Glutamic Acid / Q000378:metabolism / Q000633:toxicity; D009336:Necrosis; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents / Q000494:pharmacology*; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects; D051381:Rats; D012165:Retinal Ganglion Cells / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000378:metabolism / Q000473:pathology*; D024341:Xanthophylls / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D018696:Neuroprotective Agents; D024341:Xanthophylls; D018698:Glutamic Acid; C005948:astaxanthine