title: Lessons from conducting trans-national Internet-mediated participatory research with hidden populations of cannabis cultivators.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Internet-mediated research methods are increasingly used to access hidden populations. The International Cannabis Cultivation Questionnaire (ICCQ) is an online survey designed to facilitate international comparisons into the relatively under-researched but increasingly significant phenomenon of domestic cannabis cultivation. The Global Cannabis Cultivation Research Consortium has used the ICCQ to survey over 6000 cannabis cultivators across 11 countries. In this paper, we describe and reflect upon our methodological approach, focusing on the digital and traditional recruitment methods used to access this hidden population and the challenges of working across multiple countries, cultures and languages.
  
  
  METHODS
  Descriptive statistics showing eligibility and completion rates and recruitment source by country of residence.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Over three quarters of eligible respondents who were presented with the survey were included in the final sample of n=6528. English-speaking countries expended more effort to recruit participants than non-English-speaking countries. The most effective recruitment modes were cannabis websites/groups (33%), Facebook (14%) and news articles (11%). While respondents recruited through news articles were older, growing practice variables were strikingly similar between these main recruitment modes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Through this process, we learnt that there are trade-offs between hosting multiple surveys in each country vs. using one integrated database. We also found that although perceived anonymity is routinely assumed to be a benefit of using digital research methodologies, there are significant limits to research participant anonymity in the current era of mass digital surveillance, especially when the target group is particularly concerned about evading law enforcement. Finally, we list a number of specific recommendations for future researchers utilising Internet-mediated approaches to researching hidden populations.
authors.affiliation: Drug Policy Modelling Program, National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW Australia, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia. Electronic address: m.barratt@unsw.edu.au.
authors.forename: Monica J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Barratt
authors.affiliation: Department of Social Sciences, London South Bank University, 103 Borough Road, London SE1 0AA, UK.
authors.forename: Gary R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Potter
authors.affiliation: Bonger Institute of Criminology, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 1030, 1012 CP, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Marije
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Wouters
authors.affiliation: SHORE & Whariki Research Centre, College of Health, Massey University, PO Box 6137, Wellesley Street, Auckland, New Zealand.
authors.forename: Chris
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Wilkins
authors.affiliation: Centre for Drug Research, Goethe-Universität, Grüneburgplatz 1, D-60318 Frankfurt, Germany.
authors.forename: Bernd
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Werse
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), PO Box 30, FI-00271 Helsinki, Finland.
authors.forename: Jussi
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Perälä
authors.affiliation: Centre for Alcohol and Drug Research, Aarhus University, Bartholins Alle 10, 3, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
authors.forename: Michael Mulbjerg
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Pedersen
authors.affiliation: Department of Criminology and Criminal Justice, University of Maryland, 1101 Main Administration Building, College Park, MD 20742, USA.
authors.forename: Holly
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Nguyen
authors.affiliation: School of Criminology, Criminal Justice, and Emergency Management, California State University, Long Beach, 1250 Bellflower Boulevard, Long Beach, CA 90840, USA.
authors.forename: Aili
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Malm
authors.affiliation: National Drug Research Institute, Faculty of Health Sciences, Curtin University, GPO Box U1987, Perth, WA 6845, Australia.
authors.forename: Simon
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lenton
authors.affiliation: Bonger Institute of Criminology, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 1030, 1012 CP, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Dirk
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Korf
authors.affiliation: Royal United Services Institute, 61 Whitehall, London SW1A 2ET, UK.
authors.forename: Axel
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Klein
authors.affiliation: Institute for Social Drug Research (ISD), Ghent University, Universiteitstraat 4, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
authors.forename: Julie
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Heyde
authors.affiliation: National Institute for Health and Welfare (THL), PO Box 30, FI-00271 Helsinki, Finland.
authors.forename: Pekka
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Hakkarainen
authors.affiliation: Centre for Alcohol and Drug Research, Aarhus University, Bartholins Alle 10, 3, 8000 Aarhus C, Denmark.
authors.forename: Vibeke Asmussen
authors.initials: VA
authors.lastname: Frank
authors.affiliation: Institute for Social Drug Research (ISD), Ghent University, Universiteitstraat 4, B-9000 Gent, Belgium.
authors.forename: Tom
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Decorte
authors.affiliation: School of Criminology, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC V5A 1S6, Canada.
authors.forename: Martin
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bouchard
authors.affiliation: Bonger Institute of Criminology, University of Amsterdam, PO Box 1030, 1012 CP, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Thomas
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Blok
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D001315:Australia; D002186:Cannabinoids / Q000191:economics / Q000600:supply & distribution*; D002188:Cannabis / Q000254:growth & development*; D003132:Commerce / Q000191:economics / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D003299:Cooperative Behavior; D057237:Criminals / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence* / Q000523:psychology; D064423:Drug Trafficking / Q000191:economics / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence* / Q000517:prevention & control*; D004335:Drug and Narcotic Control / Q000331:legislation & jurisprudence*; D005060:Europe; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007391:International Cooperation; D038622:Internationality; D020407:Internet; D008297:Male; D002189:Marijuana Abuse / Q000191:economics / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D009042:Motivation; D009656:North America; D018579:Patient Selection; D011050:Policy Making; D011634:Public Health; D012107:Research Design; D018570:Risk Assessment; D012307:Risk Factors; D018401:Sample Size; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D002186:Cannabinoids
keywords: Cross-national; Hidden population; Internet; Participatory research; Recruitment; Web survey