title: Independent mobility on the journey to school: A joint cross-sectional and prospective exploration of social and physical environmental influences.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Despite related physical/mental health benefits, children's independent mobility for school travel (i.e. walking/cycling without adult accompaniment) has declined in recent decades.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To examine cross-sectional and longitudinal associations between social/physical environmental variables and independent mobility on the school journey.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants were 1121 9-10 year-olds residing within 1600 m of their school in urban/rural areas of Norfolk, UK in 2007 (T1). At one year (T2) 491 children were followed-up. At T1, parents survey-reported perceptions of the social/physical environment and rules regarding their child's physical activity. Characteristics of the neighborhood, route to school and school environment were measured using a Geographical Information System and school audits. At both time-points children survey-reported their usual travel mode and whether accompanied. Regression analyses were conducted in 2013.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Around half walked/cycled to school without adult accompaniment (T1, 43%; T2, 53%). Parents often allowing their child to play outside anywhere within the neighborhood (adjusted odds ratio (AOR) 3.14 (95% CI 1.24-7.96)) and household car access (AOR 0.27 (95% CI 0.08-0.94)) were associated longitudinally with boys walking/cycling independently to school. Land use mix (AOR 1.38 (95% CI 1.06-1.79)), proportion of main roads in the neighborhood (AOR 0.67 (95% CI 0.47-0.94)) and parental encouragement for walking/cycling (AOR 0.40 (95% CI 0.20-0.80)) were associated longitudinally with girls walking/cycling independently to school.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Interventions should develop parents' skills to teach their children to be independently mobile and to build confidence regarding venturing out without parental accompaniment. Urban planners should consider designing neighborhoods in which residences, business/retail outlets and sports facilities are co-located to promote active transport.
authors.affiliation: Centre for Physical Activity and Nutrition Research, School of Exercise and Nutrition Sciences, Deakin University, Victoria, Australia.
authors.forename: Alison
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Carver
authors.affiliation: MRC Epidemiology Unit, Cambridge, UK ; Centre for Diet and Activity Research, University of Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: Jenna R
authors.initials: JR
authors.lastname: Panter
authors.affiliation: Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK.
authors.forename: Andrew P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.affiliation: MRC Epidemiology Unit, Cambridge, UK ; Centre for Diet and Activity Research, University of Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: Esther M F
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: van Sluijs
keywords: Active transport; Built environment; Child; Independent mobility; Neighborhood