title: Do you believe in brain training? A questionnaire about expectations of computerised cognitive training.
abstract: "Brain training" (i.e., enhancing, rehabilitating, or simply maintaining cognitive function through deliberate cognitive exercise) is growing rapidly in popularity, yet remains highly controversial. Among the greatest problems in current research is the lack of a measure of participants' expectations, which can influence the degree to which they improve over training (i.e., the placebo effect). Here we created a questionnaire to measure the perceived effectiveness of brain-training software. Given the growth in advertising of these programmes, we sought to determine whether even a brief positive (or negative) message about brain training would increase (or decrease) the reported optimism of participants. We measured participants' expectations at baseline, and then following exposure to separate, brief messages that such programmes have either high or low effectiveness. Based on the knowledge they have gleaned from advertising and other real-world sources, people are relatively optimistic about brain training. However, brief messages can influence reported expectations about brain-training results: Reading a brief positive message can increase reported optimism, whereas reading a brief negative message can decrease it. Older adults appear more optimistic about brain training than young adults, especially when they report being knowledgeable about brain training and computers. These data indicate that perceptions of brain training are malleable to at least some extent, and may vary depending on age and other factors. Our questionnaire can serve as a simple, easily-incorporated tool to assess the face validity of brain training interventions and to create a covariate to account for expectations in statistical analyses.
authors.affiliation: School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada. Electronic address: srabi091@uottawa.ca.
authors.forename: Sheida
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Rabipour
authors.affiliation: School of Psychology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada; Heart and Stroke Foundation of Ontario Canadian Partnership for Stroke Recovery, Ontario, Canada; Bruyère Research Institute, Bruyère Continuing Care, Ottawa, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Patrick S R
authors.initials: PSR
authors.lastname: Davidson
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D001921:Brain / Q000502:physiology*; D003071:Cognition / Q000502:physiology*; D003200:Computer User Training; D003469:Culture; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D015990:Placebo Effect; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires; D013663:Teaching
keywords: Active control; Brain training; Expectation; Intervention design; Placebo effect; Research methods