title: Accounting for sex differences in PTSD: A multi-variable mediation model.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Approximately twice as many females as males are diagnosed with posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). However, little is known about why females report more PTSD symptoms than males. Prior studies have generally focused on few potential mediators at a time and have often used methods that were not ideally suited to test for mediation effects. Prior research has identified a number of individual risk factors that may contribute to sex differences in PTSD severity, although these cannot fully account for the increased symptom levels in females when examined individually.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  The present study is the first to systematically test the hypothesis that a combination of pre-, peri-, and posttraumatic risk factors more prevalent in females can account for sex differences in PTSD severity.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study was a quasi-prospective questionnaire survey assessing PTSD and related variables in 73.3% of all Danish bank employees exposed to bank robbery during the period from April 2010 to April 2011. Participants filled out questionnaires 1 week (T1, N=450) and 6 months after the robbery (T2, N=368; 61.1% females). Mediation was examined using an analysis designed specifically to test a multiple mediator model.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Females reported more PTSD symptoms than males and higher levels of neuroticism, depression, physical anxiety sensitivity, peritraumatic fear, horror, and helplessness (the A2 criterion), tonic immobility, panic, dissociation, negative posttraumatic cognitions about self and the world, and feeling let down. These variables were included in the model as potential mediators. The combination of risk factors significantly mediated the association between sex and PTSD severity, accounting for 83% of the association.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The findings suggest that females report more PTSD symptoms because they experience higher levels of associated risk factors. The results are relevant to other trauma populations and to other trauma-related psychiatric disorders more prevalent in females, such as depression and anxiety.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of Aarhus, Aarhus C, Demark; National Centre for Psychotraumatology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark; dochristiansen@health.sdu.dk.
authors.forename: Dorte M
authors.initials: DM
authors.lastname: Christiansen
authors.affiliation: Institute of Psychology, University of Southern Denmark, Odense M, Denmark.
authors.forename: Maj
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hansen
keywords: Posttraumatic stress disorder; gender differences; interpersonal violence; multiple mediators; predictors; risk factors; robbery