title: Diabetic foot syndrome: Immune-inflammatory features as possible cardiovascular markers in diabetes.
abstract: Diabetic foot ulcerations have been extensively reported as vascular complications of diabetes mellitus associated with a high degree of morbidity and mortality. Diabetic foot syndrome (DFS), as defined by the World Health Organization, is an "ulceration of the foot (distally from the ankle and including the ankle) associated with neuropathy and different grades of ischemia and infection". Pathogenic events able to cause diabetic foot ulcers are multifactorial. Among the commonest causes of this pathogenic pathway it's possible to consider peripheral neuropathy, foot deformity, abnormal foot pressures, abnormal joint mobility, trauma, peripheral artery disease. Several studies reported how diabetic patients show a higher mortality rate compared to patients without diabetes and in particular these studies under filled how cardiovascular mortality and morbidity is 2-4 times higher among patients affected by type 2 diabetes mellitus. This higher degree of cardiovascular morbidity has been explained as due to the observed higher prevalence of major cardiovascular risk factor, of asymptomatic findings of cardiovascular diseases, and of prevalence and incidence of cardiovascular and cerebrovascular events in diabetic patients with foot complications. In diabetes a fundamental pathogenic pathway of most of vascular complications has been reported as linked to a complex interplay of inflammatory, metabolic and procoagulant variables. These pathogenetic aspects have a direct interplay with an insulin resistance, subsequent obesity, diabetes, hypertension, prothrombotic state and blood lipid disorder. Involvement of inflammatory markers such as IL-6 plasma levels and resistin in diabetic subjects as reported by Tuttolomondo et al confirmed the pathogenetic issue of the a "adipo-vascular" axis that may contribute to cardiovascular risk in patients with type 2 diabetes. This "adipo-vascular axis" in patients with type 2 diabetes has been reported as characterized by lower plasma levels of adiponectin and higher plasma levels of interleukin-6 thus linking foot ulcers pathogenesis to microvascular and inflammatory events. The purpose of this review is to highlight the immune inflammatory features of DFS and its possible role as a marker of cardiovascular risk in diabetes patients and to focus the management of major complications related to diabetes such as infections and peripheral arteriopathy.
authors.affiliation: Antonino Tuttolomondo, Carlo Maida, Antonio Pinto, Dipartimento Biomedico di Medicina Interna e Specialistica, U.O.C di Medicina Interna e Cardioangiologia, Università degli Studi di Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy.
authors.forename: Antonino
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Tuttolomondo
authors.affiliation: Antonino Tuttolomondo, Carlo Maida, Antonio Pinto, Dipartimento Biomedico di Medicina Interna e Specialistica, U.O.C di Medicina Interna e Cardioangiologia, Università degli Studi di Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy.
authors.forename: Carlo
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Maida
authors.affiliation: Antonino Tuttolomondo, Carlo Maida, Antonio Pinto, Dipartimento Biomedico di Medicina Interna e Specialistica, U.O.C di Medicina Interna e Cardioangiologia, Università degli Studi di Palermo, 90127 Palermo, Italy.
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pinto
keywords: Cardiovascular risk; Cytokines; Diabetic foot syndrome; Inflammation; Marker