title: Associations between air pollution and socioeconomic characteristics, ethnicity and age profile of neighbourhoods in England and the Netherlands.
abstract: Air pollution levels are generally believed to be higher in deprived areas but associations are complex especially between sensitive population subgroups. We explore air pollution inequalities at national, regional and city level in England and the Netherlands comparing particulate matter (PM10) and nitrogen dioxide (NO2) concentrations and publicly available population characteristics (deprivation, ethnicity, proportion of children and elderly). We saw higher concentrations in the most deprived 20% of neighbourhoods in England (1.5 μg/m(3) higher PM10 and 4.4 μg/m(3) NO2). Concentrations in both countries were higher in neighbourhoods with >20% non-White (England: 3.0 μg/m(3) higher PM10 and 10.1 μg/m(3) NO2; the Netherlands: 1.1 μg/m(3) higher PM10 and 4.5 μg/m(3) NO2) after adjustment for urbanisation and other variables. Associations for some areas differed from the national results. Air pollution inequalities were mainly an urban problem suggesting measures to reduce environmental air pollution inequality should include a focus on city transport.
authors.affiliation: UK Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK. Electronic address: d.fecht@imperial.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Daniela
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Fecht
authors.affiliation: Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3721 Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Fischer
authors.affiliation: UK Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
authors.forename: Léa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Fortunato
authors.affiliation: Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Gerard
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Hoek
authors.affiliation: UK Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
authors.forename: Kees
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: de Hoogh
authors.affiliation: Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3721 Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Marten
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Marra
authors.affiliation: Centre for Sustainability, Environment and Health, National Institute for Public Health and the Environment (RIVM), Antonie van Leeuwenhoeklaan 9, 3721 Bilthoven, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Hanneke
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Kruize
authors.affiliation: UK Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK.
authors.forename: Danielle
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Vienneau
authors.affiliation: Institute for Risk Assessment Sciences (IRAS), Utrecht University, Yalelaan 2, 3584 CM Utrecht, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Rob
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Beelen
authors.affiliation: UK Small Area Health Statistics Unit, MRC-PHE Centre for Environment and Health, Department of Epidemiology and Biostatistics, Imperial College London, St Mary's Campus, Norfolk Place, London W2 1PG, UK; Honorary Consultant, Imperial College Healthcare NHS Trust, London, UK.
authors.forename: Anna
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hansell
mesh_terms: D000368:Aged; D000393:Air Pollutants / Q000032:analysis*; D000397:Air Pollution / Q000032:analysis / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D002648:Child; D004739:England; D004781:Environmental Exposure / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005006:Ethnicity; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009426:Netherlands; D009585:Nitrogen Dioxide / Q000032:analysis; D052638:Particulate Matter / Q000032:analysis; D011203:Poverty; D011204:Poverty Areas; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D013997:Time Factors
chemical_list: D000393:Air Pollutants; D052638:Particulate Matter; D009585:Nitrogen Dioxide
keywords: Air pollution; Deprivation; Environmental justice; Ethnic inequity; Socioeconomic status