title: Chronic tissue response to untethered microelectrode implants in the rat brain and spinal cord.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Microelectrodes implanted in the central nervous system (CNS) often fail in long term implants due to the immunological tissue response caused by tethering forces of the connecting wires. In addition to the tethering effect, there is a mechanical stress that occurs at the device-tissue interface simply because the microelectrode is a rigid body floating in soft tissue and it cannot reshape itself to comply with changes in the surrounding tissue. In the current study we evaluated the scar tissue formation to tetherless devices with two significantly different geometries in the rat brain and spinal cord in order to investigate the effects of device geometry.
  
  
  METHODS
  One of the implant geometries resembled the wireless, floating microstimulators that we are currently developing in our laboratory and the other was a (shank only) Michigan probe for comparison. Both electrodes were implanted into either the cervical spinal cord or the motor cortices, one on each side.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The most pronounced astroglial and microglial reactions occurred within 20 μm from the device and decreased sharply at larger distances. Both cell types displayed the morphology of non-activated cells past the 100 μm perimeter. Even though the aspect ratios of the implants were different, the astroglial and microglial responses to both microelectrode types were very mild in the brain, stronger and yet limited in the spinal cord.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These observations confirm previous reports and further suggest that tethering may be responsible for most of the tissue response in chronic implants and that the electrode size has a smaller contribution with floating electrodes. The electrode size may be playing primarily an amplifying role to the tethering forces in the brain whereas the size itself may induce chronic response in the spinal cord where the movement of surrounding tissues is more significant.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Engineering, New Jersey Institute of Technology, Newark, NJ, USA.
authors.forename: Ali
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ersen
authors.forename: Stella
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Elkabes
authors.forename: David S
authors.initials: DS
authors.lastname: Freedman
authors.forename: Mesut
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sahin
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001921:Brain / Q000276:immunology* / Q000473:pathology; D004558:Electric Stimulation; D004567:Electrodes, Implanted / Q000009:adverse effects*; D004867:Equipment Design; D019544:Equipment Failure Analysis; D007249:Inflammation / Q000209:etiology* / Q000276:immunology*; D008297:Male; D008839:Microelectrodes / Q000009:adverse effects*; D018670:Monitoring, Ambulatory / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000295:instrumentation; D051381:Rats; D017207:Rats, Sprague-Dawley; D013116:Spinal Cord / Q000276:immunology* / Q000473:pathology