title: The supplementary therapeutic DMARD role of low-dose glucocorticoids in rheumatoid arthritis.
abstract: The management of rheumatoid arthritis (RA) is primarily based on the use of disease-modifying antirheumatic drugs (DMARDs), mainly comprising synthetic chemical compounds (that is, methotrexate or leflunomide) and biological agents (tumor necrosis factor inhibitors or abatacept). On the other hand, glucocorticoids (GCs), used for decades in the treatment of RA, are effective in relieving signs and symptoms of the disease, but also interfere with radiographic progression, either as monotherapy or in combination with conventional synthetic DMARDs. GCs exert most of their biological effects through a genomic action, using the cytosolic GC receptor and then interacting with the target genes within target cells that can result in increased expression of regulatory--including anti-inflammatory--proteins (transactivation) or decreased production of proinflammatory proteins (transrepression). An inadequate secretion of GCs from the adrenal gland, in relation to stress and inflammation, seems to play an important role in the pathogenesis and disease progression of RA. At present there is clear evidence that GC therapy, especially long-term low-dose treatment, slows radiographic progression by at least 50% when given to patients with early RA, hence satisfying the conventional definition of a DMARD. In addition, long-term follow-up studies suggest that RA treatment strategies which include GC therapy may favorably alter the disease course even after their discontinuation. Finally, a low-dose, modified night-release formulation of prednisone, although administered in the evening (replacement therapy), has been developed to counteract the circadian (night) rise in proinflammatory cytokine levels that contributes to disease activity, and might represent the way to further optimize the DMARD activity exerted by GCs in RA.
authors.forename: Maurizio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cutolo
authors.forename: Cornelia M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Spies
authors.forename: Frank
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Buttgereit
authors.forename: Sabrina
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Paolino
authors.forename: Carmen
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pizzorni
mesh_terms: D018501:Antirheumatic Agents / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001172:Arthritis, Rheumatoid / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000503:physiopathology; D002940:Circadian Rhythm; D016207:Cytokines / Q000378:metabolism; D018450:Disease Progression; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D005786:Gene Expression Regulation; D005938:Glucocorticoids / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000378:metabolism / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006801:Humans; D011965:Receptors, Glucocorticoid / Q000502:physiology; D012636:Secretory Rate; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors
chemical_list: D018501:Antirheumatic Agents; D016207:Cytokines; D005938:Glucocorticoids; D011965:Receptors, Glucocorticoid; D014409:Tumor Necrosis Factor-alpha