title: Variability in eating frequency in relation to adiposity measures and blood lipid profiles in British children and adolescents: findings from the National Diet and Nutrition Survey.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  A very limited number of intervention trials and observational studies in adults have suggested that irregular eating frequency is associated with adverse profiles of metabolic risk factors, but evidence in younger populations is lacking.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This cross-sectional study examined the association of variability in eating frequency with adiposity measures (n=1636) and blood lipid profiles (n=843) in British children aged 4-10 years (n=818 for adiposity measures and 324 for blood lipids) and adolescents aged 11-18 years (n=818 for adiposity measures and 519 for blood lipids).
  
  
  METHODS
  Data from the UK National Diet and Nutrition Survey were analyzed. Dietary intake was assessed using a 7-day weighed dietary record. Eating frequency was calculated based on all eating occasions, except for those providing <210 kJ of energy. Variability in eating frequency was calculated by adding the absolute difference between the 7-day mean eating frequency and that in each day divided by the number of days (7 days), with a higher value indicating a large weekly variability in eating frequency.
  
  
  RESULTS
  After adjustment for age, sex, social class, physical activity, ratio of reported energy intake to estimated energy requirement, body mass index z-score, eating frequency, and intakes of protein, saturated fat, total sugar and dietary fiber, variability in eating frequency was positively associated with total and low-density lipoprotein (LDL) cholesterol in children aged 4-10 years (P=0.04 and 0.03, respectively), but not in adolescents aged 11-18 years. There were no associations between eating frequency variability and other metabolic risk factors examined, including body mass index z-score, waist-to-height ratio, high-density lipoprotein cholesterol and triacylglycerol concentrations.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Larger variability in eating frequency was associated with higher total and LDL cholesterol concentrations in children aged 4-10 years.
authors: Department of Nutrition, School of Human Cultures, University of Shiga Prefecture, Shiga, Japan.
authors: K
authors: K
authors: Murakami
authors: Northern Ireland Centre for Food and Health, University of Ulster, Coleraine, UK.
authors: M B E
authors: MB
authors: Livingstone
mesh_terms: D050154:Adiposity / Q000502:physiology*; D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior; D017195:Adolescent Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D015992:Body Mass Index; D002648:Child; D002652:Child Behavior; D002664:Child Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D002675:Child, Preschool; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D002149:Energy Intake / Q000502:physiology*; D005247:Feeding Behavior / Q000523:psychology*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008077:Lipoproteins, LDL / Q000097:blood*; D008297:Male; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D012307:Risk Factors; D057566:Self Report; D006113:United Kingdom / Q000453:epidemiology
chemical_list: D008077:Lipoproteins, LDL
references: Clin Chem. 1972 Jun;18(6):499-502
references: 4337382
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 2002 Nov;102(11):1621-30
references: 12449285
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2007 Jan;15(1):100-6
references: 17228037
references: Int J Obes Relat Metab Disord. 2004 May;28(5):653-60
references: 15085170
references: JAMA. 1990 Dec 19;264(23):3034-8
references: 2243431
references: Br J Nutr. 2005 Feb;93(2):241-7
references: 15788117
references: Br J Nutr. 2013 Oct;110(8):1512-23
references: 23534385
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Aug;82(2):302-8
references: 16087972
references: Eur J Clin Nutr. 2004 Jul;58(7):1071-7
references: 15220950
references: Arch Dis Child. 1995 Jul;73(1):25-9
references: 7639544
references: Am J Epidemiol. 2003 Jul 1;158(1):85-92
references: 12835290
references: Am J Clin Nutr. 2005 Jan;81(1):16-24
references: 15640455
references: Circulation. 2005 Sep 6;112(10):1486-93
references: 16129802
references: Med Sci Sports Exerc. 2011 Aug;43(8):1575-81
references: 21681120
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2010 Apr;18(4):736-42
references: 19696760
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2011 Mar;19(3):552-9
references: 20966909
references: Int J Obes (Lond). 2014 Sep;38(9):1200-6
references: 24406480
references: Am J Epidemiol. 1991 May 1;133(9):884-99
references: 2028978
references: Obes Rev. 2001 Aug;2(3):141-7
references: 12120099
references: Obesity (Silver Spring). 2008 Jun;16(6):1302-7
references: 18388902
references: Public Health Nutr. 2005 Oct;8(7A):1133-52
references: 16277825
references: Br J Nutr. 2014 Jun 28;111(12 ):2176-83
references: 24655480
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 2009 Apr;109 (4):633-40
references: 19328258