title: Skipping Breakfast is Correlated with Obesity.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Despite the fact that the total energy intake of Japanese people has decreased, the percentage of obese people has increased. This suggests that the timing of meals is related to obesity. The purpose of the study was to investigate the relationship between the timing of meals and obesity, based on analyses of physical measurements, serum biochemical markers, nutrient intake, and lifestyle factors in the context of Chrononutrition.
  
  
  METHODS
  We analyzed data derived from 766 residents of Toon City (286 males and 480 females) aged 30 to 79 years who underwent detailed medical examinations between 2011 and 2013. These medical examinations included. (1) physical measurements (waist circumference, blood pressure, etc.); (2) serum biochemical markers (total cholesterol, etc.); (3) a detailed questionnaire concerning lifestyle factors such as family structure and daily habits (22 issues), exercise and eating habits (28 issues), alcohol intake and smoking habits; (4) a food frequency questionnaire based on food groups (FFQg); and (5) a questionnaire concerning the times at which meals and snacks are consumed.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The values for body mass index (BMI) and waist circumference were higher for participants who ate dinner less than three hours before bedtime (<3-h group) than those who ate more than three hours before bedtime (>3-h group). The Chi-square test showed that there was a significant difference in eating habits, e.g., eating snacks, eating snacks at night, having dinner after 8 p.m., and having dinner after 9 p.m., between the <3-h group and the >3-h group. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that skipping breakfast significantly influenced both waist circumference (β = 5.271) and BMI (β = 1.440) and that eating dinner <3-h before going to bed only influenced BMI (β = 0.581).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Skipping breakfast had a greater influence on both waist circumference and BMI than eating dinner <3-h before going to bed.
authors: Department of Applied Bioresource Science, The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan ; Ehime Prefectural Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives for Health and Welfare (JA Ehime Kouseiren), Japan.
authors: Yoko
authors: Y
authors: Watanabe
authors: Department of Basic Nursing and Health Science, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan.
authors: Isao
authors: I
authors: Saito
authors: Department of Faculty of Nutrition, University of Kochi, Japan.
authors: Ikuyo
authors: I
authors: Henmi
authors: Department of Public Health, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan.
authors: Kana
authors: K
authors: Yoshimura
authors: Department of Public Health, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan.
authors: Kotatsu
authors: K
authors: Maruyama
authors: Department of Center for Education and Educational Research, Ehime University, Japan.
authors: Kanako
authors: K
authors: Yamauchi
authors: Department of Applied Bioresource Science, The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan.
authors: Tatsuhiro
authors: T
authors: Matsuo
authors: Department of Applied Bioresource Science, The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan ; Ehime Prefectural Federation of Agricultural Cooperatives for Health and Welfare (JA Ehime Kouseiren), Japan.
authors: Tadahiro
authors: T
authors: Kato
authors: Department of Public Health, Ehime University Graduate School of Medicine, Japan.
authors: Takeshi
authors: T
authors: Tanigawa
authors: Department of Applied Bioresource Science, The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan.
authors: Taro
authors: T
authors: Kishida
authors: Department of Applied Bioresource Science, The United Graduate School of Agricultural Sciences, Ehime University, Japan.
authors: Yasuhiko
authors: Y
authors: Asada
keywords: chrononutrition; obesity; skipping breakfast
references: Metabolism. 2006 Oct;55(10 Suppl 2):S30-5
references: 16979424
references: Nature. 2007 May 24;447(7143):477-81
references: 17476214
references: Annu Rev Nutr. 2007;27:219-40
references: 17430084
references: Am J Epidemiol. 2003 Jul 1;158(1):85-92
references: 12835290
references: Chronobiol Int. 2009 Apr;26(3):544-59
references: 19360495
references: Am J Physiol Gastrointest Liver Physiol. 2010 Nov;299(5):G1045-53
references: 20847299
references: Sleep Med. 2011 Mar;12 (3):289-94
references: 21296614
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2005 Aug 23;102(34):12071-6
references: 16093318
references: J Am Diet Assoc. 2005 May;105(5):743-60; quiz 761-2
references: 15883552
references: Diabetes. 2008 Oct;57(10):2661-5
references: 18633111