title: Phenotype and animal domestication: A study of dental variation between domestic, wild, captive, hybrid and insular Sus scrofa.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Identifying the phenotypic responses to domestication remains a long-standing and important question for researchers studying its early history. The great diversity in domestic animals and plants that exists today bears testament to the profound changes that domestication has induced in their ancestral wild forms over the last millennia. Domestication is a complex evolutionary process in which wild organisms are moved to new anthropogenic environments. Although modern genetics are significantly improving our understanding of domestication and breed formation, little is still known about the associated morphological changes linked to the process itself. In order to explore phenotypic variation induced by different levels of human control, we analysed the diversity of dental size, shape and allometry in modern free-living and captive wild, wild x domestic hybrid, domestic and insular Sus scrofa populations.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We show that domestication has created completely new dental phenotypes not found in wild boar (although the amount of variation amongst domestic pigs does not exceed that found in the wild). Wild boar tooth shape also appears to be biogeographically structured, likely the result of post-glacial recolonisation history. Furthermore, distinct dental phenotypes were also observed among domestic breeds, probably the result of differing types and intensity of past and present husbandry practices. Captivity also appears to impact tooth shape. Wild x domestic hybrids possess second molars that are strictly intermediate in shape between wild boar and domestic pigs (third molars, however, showing greater shape similarity with wild boar) while their size is more similar to domestic pigs. The dental phenotypes of insular Sus scrofa populations found on Corsica and Sardinia today (originally introduced by Neolithic settlers to the islands) can be explained either by feralization of the original introduced domestic swine or that the founding population maintained a wild boar phenotype through time.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Domestication has driven significant phenotypic diversification in Sus scrofa. Captivity (environmental control), hybridization (genome admixture), and introduction to islands all correspond to differing levels of human control and may be considered different stages of the domestication process. The relatively well-known genetic evolutionary history of pigs shows a similar complexity at the phenotypic level.
authors: Department of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen, St. Mary's Building, Elphinstone Road, Aberdeen, UK. a.evin@abdn.ac.uk.|CNRS-Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR 7209, Archéozoologie, Archéobotanique : Sociétés, Pratiques et Environnement, 55 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France. a.evin@abdn.ac.uk.
authors: Allowen
authors: A
authors: Evin
authors: Department of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen, St. Mary's Building, Elphinstone Road, Aberdeen, UK. keith.dobney@abdn.ac.uk.
authors: Keith
authors: K
authors: Dobney
authors: Group Animal Breeding, Institute of Agricultural and Nutritional Sciences (IANS), Martin-Luther-University Halle-Wittenberg, Theodor-Lieser-Str, 11 D-06120, Halle/Saale, Germany. renate.schafberg@landw.uni-halle.de.
authors: Renate
authors: R
authors: Schafberg
authors: Department of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen, St. Mary's Building, Elphinstone Road, Aberdeen, UK. jowen@abdn.ac.uk.|Department of Archaeology, Simon Fraser University, Education Bulding 9635, 8888 University Dr, Burnaby, BC, V5A, Canada. jowen@abdn.ac.uk.|Department of Anthropology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK. jowen@abdn.ac.uk.
authors: Joseph
authors: J
authors: Owen
authors: Department of Anthropology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK. una.vidarsdottir@durham.ac.uk.
authors: Una Strand
authors: US
authors: Vidarsdottir
authors: Durham Evolution and Ancient DNA, Department of Archaeology, Durham University, South Road, Durham, DH1 3LE, UK. greger.larson@durham.ac.uk.
authors: Greger
authors: G
authors: Larson
authors: Department of Archaeology, University of Aberdeen, St. Mary's Building, Elphinstone Road, Aberdeen, UK. cucchi@mnhn.fr.|CNRS-Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, UMR 7209, Archéozoologie, Archéobotanique : Sociétés, Pratiques et Environnement, 55 rue Buffon, 75005, Paris, France. cucchi@mnhn.fr.
authors: Thomas
authors: T
authors: Cucchi
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000829:Animals, Domestic; D019143:Evolution, Molecular; D014644:Genetic Variation; D006801:Humans; D006824:Hybridization, Genetic; D010641:Phenotype; D034421:Sus scrofa / Q000235:genetics* / Q000502:physiology; D014070:Tooth / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000502:physiology
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