title: Parallel evolution in Ugandan crater lakes: repeated evolution of limnetic body shapes in haplochromine cichlid fish.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The enormous diversity found in East African cichlid fishes in terms of morphology, coloration, and behavior have made them a model for the study of speciation and adaptive evolution. In particular, haplochromine cichlids, by far the most species-rich lineage of cichlids, are a well-known textbook example for parallel evolution. Southwestern Uganda is an area of high tectonic activity, and is home to numerous crater lakes. Many Ugandan crater lakes were colonized, apparently independently, by a single lineage of haplochromine cichlids. Thereby, this system could be considered a natural experiment in which one can study the interaction between geographical isolation and natural selection promoting phenotypic diversification.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We sampled 13 crater lakes and six potentially-ancestral older lakes and, using both mitochondrial and microsatellite markers, discovered strong genetic and morphological differentiation whereby (a) geographically close lakes tend to be genetically more similar and (b) three different geographic areas seem to have been colonized by three independent waves of colonization from the same source population. Using a geometric morphometric approach, we found that body shape elongation (i.e. a limnetic morphology) evolved repeatedly from the ancestral deeper-bodied benthic morphology in the clear and deep crater lake habitats.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  A pattern of strong genetic and morphological differentiation was observed in the Ugandan crater lakes. Our data suggest that body shape changes have repeatedly evolved into a more limnetic-like form in several Ugandan crater lakes after independent waves of colonization from the same source population. The observed morphological changes in crater lake cichlids are likely to result from a common selective regime.
authors: Department of Biology, Chair of Zoology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany. gonzalo.machado-schiaffino@uni-konstanz.de.
authors: Gonzalo
authors: G
authors: Machado-Schiaffino
authors: Department of Biology, Chair of Zoology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany. andreas.kautt@uni-konstanz.de.|International Max Planck Research School for Organismal Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany. andreas.kautt@uni-konstanz.de.
authors: Andreas F
authors: AF
authors: Kautt
authors: Department of Biology, Chair of Zoology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany. henrik.kusche@gmail.com.|International Max Planck Research School for Organismal Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany. henrik.kusche@gmail.com.
authors: Henrik
authors: H
authors: Kusche
authors: Department of Biology, Chair of Zoology and Evolutionary Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany. axel.meyer@uni-konstanz.de.|International Max Planck Research School for Organismal Biology, University of Konstanz, Universitätsstrasse 10, 78457, Konstanz, Germany. axel.meyer@uni-konstanz.de.
authors: Axel
authors: A
authors: Meyer
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D023681:Cichlids / Q000033:anatomy & histology* / Q000235:genetics*; D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial / Q000235:genetics; D017753:Ecosystem; D049810:Genetic Speciation; D060106:Lakes; D018895:Microsatellite Repeats; D012641:Selection, Genetic; D014454:Uganda
chemical_list: D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial
references: Genetics. 1999 Jun;152(2):763-73
references: 10353916
references: Mol Ecol. 1999 May;8(5):895-7
references: 10368970
references: Genetics. 1999 Jul;152(3):1079-89
references: 10388826
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1999 Aug 31;96(18):10230-5
references: 10468591
references: Genetics. 2000 Jun;155(2):945-59
references: 10835412
references: Genetics. 2001 Jun;158(2):885-96
references: 11404349
references: Mol Ecol. 2001 Jun;10(6):1471-88
references: 11412369
references: Proc Biol Sci. 2002 Mar 7;269(1490):491-7
references: 11886641
references: Science. 2003 Apr 11;300(5617):325-9
references: 12649486
references: Mol Biol Evol. 2003 Sep;20(9):1448-62
references: 12777512
references: Bioinformatics. 2003 Dec 12;19(18):2496-7
references: 14668244
references: Nat Rev Genet. 2004 Apr;5(4):288-98
references: 15131652
references: BMC Evol Biol. 2005 Feb 21;5:17
references: 15723698
references: Mol Ecol. 2005 Jul;14(8):2611-20
references: 15969739
references: Nature. 2006 Feb 9;439(7077):719-23
references: 16467837
references: Proc Biol Sci. 2006 Aug 22;273(1597):1987-98
references: 16846905
references: Mol Ecol. 2006 Nov;15(13):3983-4001
references: 17054498
references: Mol Biol Evol. 2007 Sep;24(9):2069-80
references: 17652334
references: BMC Bioinformatics. 2008 Jul 28;9:323
references: 18662398
references: Science. 2008 Oct 10;322(5899):255-7
references: 18755942
references: Genetics. 2009 May;182(1):387-97
references: 18757932
references: Evol Bioinform Online. 2007 Feb 23;1:47-50
references: 19325852
references: Am Nat. 1992 Jul;140(1):85-108
references: 19426066
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2009 Aug 11;106(32):13404-9
references: 19651614
references: Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci. 2010 Jun 12;365(1547):1763-82
references: 20439280
references: BMC Evol Biol. 2010 Oct 26;10:326
references: 20977752
references: J Evol Biol. 2010 Dec;23(12):2602-13
references: 21040068
references: Trends Ecol Evol. 1993 Aug;8(8):279-84
references: 21236169
references: Mol Ecol Resour. 2011 Jan;11(1):151-3
references: 21429113
references: Mol Ecol Resour. 2011 Mar;11(2):353-7
references: 21429143
references: Trends Ecol Evol. 2011 Jun;26(6):298-306
references: 21459472
references: Evolution. 2011 Jul;65(7):1827-40
references: 21729041
references: Nature. 1990 Oct 11;347(6293):550-3
references: 2215680
references: Nature. 2012 Apr 04;484(7392):55-61
references: 22481358
references: Nature. 2012 Jul 19;487(7407):366-9
references: 22722840
references: Bioinformatics. 2012 Oct 1;28(19):2537-9
references: 22820204
references: Mol Ecol. 2012 Oct;21(19):4770-86
references: 22934802
references: Evolution. 2013 Jul;67(7):2114-23
references: 23815664
references: Science. 2013 Jul 19;341(6143):292-5
references: 23869019
references: Ecol Evol. 2013 Jul;3(7):2262-72
references: 23919168
references: Mol Ecol. 2014 Apr;23(7):1828-45
references: 24237636
references: Evolution. 2014 Jul;68(7):2145-55
references: 24660780
references: Ecol Evol. 2014 Apr;4(7):1127-39
references: 24772288
references: Annu Rev Genomics Hum Genet. 2014;15:417-41
references: 24898042
references: Evolution. 1987 Nov;41(6):1357-1369
references: 28563603
references: Evolution. 1989 Jan;43(1):223-225
references: 28568501
references: Mol Phylogenet Evol. 1993 Jun;2(2):158-65
references: 8025722
references: Nature. 1994 Apr 7;368(6471):539-42
references: 8139686
references: Nature. 1994 Apr 14;368(6472):629-32
references: 8145848
references: Proc Biol Sci. 1996 Nov 22;263(1376):1589-98
references: 8952095
references: Genetics. 1997 Oct;147(2):915-25
references: 9335623
references: Bioinformatics. 1998;14(9):817-8
references: 9918953