title: Prevalence and genetic characteristics of Salmonella in free-living birds in Poland.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Salmonella species are widespread in the environment, and occur in cattle, pigs, and birds, including poultry and free-living birds. In this study, we determined the occurrence of Salmonella in different wild bird species in Poland, focusing on five Salmonella serovars monitored in poultry by the European Union: Salmonella serovars Enteritidis, Typhimurium, Infantis, Virchow, and Hadar. We characterized their phenotypic and genetic variations. Isolates were classified into species and subspecies of the genus Salmonella with a polymerase chain reaction (PCR) assay. The prevalence of selected virulence genes (spvB, spiA, pagC, cdtB, msgA, invA, sipB, prgA, spaN, orgA, tolC, ironN, sitC, ipfC, sifA, sopB, and pefA) among the isolated strains was determined. We categorized all the Salmonella ser. Typhimurium strains with enterobacterial repetitive intergenic consensus (ERIC)-PCR.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Sixty-four Salmonella isolates were collected from 235 cloacal swabs, 699 fecal samples, and 66 tissue samples (6.4% of 1000 samples) taken from 40 different species of wild birds in Poland between September 2011 and August 2013. The largest numbers of isolates were collected from Eurasian siskin and greenfinch: 33.3% positive samples for both. The collected strains belonged to one of three Salmonella subspecies: enterica (81.25%), salamae (17.19%), or houtenae (1.56%). Eighteen strains belonged to Salmonella ser. Typhimurium (28.13%), one to ser. Infantis (1.56%), one to ser. Virchow (1.56%), and one to ser. Hadar (1.56%). All isolates contained spiA, msgA, invA, lpfC, and sifA genes; 94.45% of isolates also contained sitC and sopB genes. None of the Salmonella ser. Typhimurium strains contained the cdtB gene. The one Salmonella ser. Hadar strain contained all the tested genes, except spvB and pefA; the one Salmonella ser. Infantis strain contained all the tested genes, except tspvB, pefA, and cdtB; and the one Salmonella ser. Virchow strain contained all the tested genes, except spvB, pefA, cdtB, and tolC. The Salmonella ser. Typhimurium strains varied across the same host species, but similarity was observed among strains isolated from the same environment (e.g., the same bird feeder or the same lake).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results confirm that some wild avian species are reservoirs for Salmonella serotypes, especially Salmonella ser. Typhimurium.
authors: Department of Epizootiology and Clinic of Bird and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Pl. Grunwaldzki 45, 50-366, Wrocław, Poland. martawet84@gmail.com.
authors: Marta
authors: M
authors: Krawiec
authors: Department of Epizootiology and Clinic of Bird and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Pl. Grunwaldzki 45, 50-366, Wrocław, Poland. maciej.kuczkowski@up.wroc.pl.
authors: Maciej
authors: M
authors: Kuczkowski
authors: Warsaw Zoological Garden, ul. Ratuszowa 1/3, 03-461, Warsaw, Poland. andrzej.kruszewicz@zoo.waw.pl.
authors: Andrzej Grzegorz
authors: AG
authors: Kruszewicz
authors: Department of Epizootiology and Clinic of Bird and Exotic Animals, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Wrocław University of Environmental and Life Sciences, Pl. Grunwaldzki 45, 50-366, Wrocław, Poland. alina.wieliczko@up.wroc.pl.
authors: Alina
authors: A
authors: Wieliczko
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000835:Animals, Wild / Q000382:microbiology*; D001715:Bird Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000382:microbiology; D001717:Birds; D004372:Ducks / Q000382:microbiology; D060885:Multiplex Polymerase Chain Reaction / Q000662:veterinary; D011044:Poland / Q000453:epidemiology; D012475:Salmonella / Q000235:genetics* / Q000302:isolation & purification; D012481:Salmonella Infections, Animal / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000382:microbiology; D012477:Salmonella enteritidis / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D012486:Salmonella typhimurium / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D012703:Serotyping; D037521:Virulence Factors / Q000235:genetics
chemical_list: D037521:Virulence Factors
references: Zentralbl Veterinarmed B. 1994 Jul;41(5):320-7
references: 7839754
references: Przegl Epidemiol. 1976;30(4):511-4
references: 1013367
references: Zoonoses Public Health. 2012 Aug;59(5):355-64
references: 22353581
references: Infect Immun. 2003 Oct;71(10):6068-74
references: 14500532
references: Avian Pathol. 2011 Aug;40(4):405-9
references: 21812720
references: Nucleic Acids Res. 1991 Dec 25;19(24):6823-31
references: 1762913
references: J Appl Microbiol. 2009 Sep;107(3):805-11
references: 19486419
references: Can Vet J. 1979 May;20(5):143-4
references: 385137
references: Avian Dis. 2012 Sep;56(3):529-36
references: 23050470
references: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2011 Nov;77(22):8139-44
references: 21948838
references: N Z Vet J. 2002 Oct;50(5):170-6
references: 16032266
references: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2003 Jul;69(7):3687-94
references: 12839733
references: Food Microbiol. 2014 Apr;38:67-74
references: 24290628
references: Cent Eur J Public Health. 1995 Feb;3(1):21-4
references: 7787820
references: Vet Rec. 2006 Jun 17;158(24):817-20
references: 16782854
references: Res Vet Sci. 2013 Aug;95(1):45-8
references: 23481141
references: Avian Dis. 1999 Jul-Sep;43(3):549-52
references: 10494426
references: Int J Food Microbiol. 2013 Jun 3;164(1):113-8
references: 23628778
references: Res Microbiol. 2010 Jan-Feb;161(1):26-9
references: 19840847
references: BMC Vet Res. 2008;4:4
references: 18230128
references: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2002 Nov;68(11):5600-6
references: 12406755
references: J Vet Med B Infect Dis Vet Public Health. 2003 Feb;50(1):42-4
references: 12710500
references: Ecohealth. 2010 Sep;7(3):294-306
references: 20945078
references: Vet Clin North Am Small Anim Pract. 1991 Nov;21(6):1289-98
references: 1767475
references: Avian Dis. 2006 Mar;50(1):77-81
references: 16617986
references: Avian Pathol. 2013 Aug;42(4):323-6
references: 23721074
references: Food Microbiol. 2011 Sep;28(6):1124-8
references: 21645810
references: Am J Epidemiol. 1998 Apr 15;147(8):774-82
references: 9554419
references: Avian Dis. 2012 Mar;56(1):249-56
references: 22545556