title: Prospect for kidney bioengineering: shortcomings of the status quo.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Dialysis and renal transplantation are the only two therapeutic options offered to patients affected by end-stage kidney disease; however, neither treatment can be considered definitive. In fact, dialysis is able to replace only the filtration function of the kidney without substituting its endocrine and metabolic roles, and dramatically impacts on patient's quality of life. On the other hand, kidney transplantation is severely limited by the shortage of transplantable organs, the need for immunosuppressive therapies and a narrow half-life. Regenerative medicine approaches are promising tools aiming to improve this condition.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cell therapies, bioartificial kidney, organ bioengineering, 3D printer and kidney-on-chip represent the most appealing areas of research for the treatment of end-stage kidney failure. The scope of this review is to summarize the state of the art, limits and directions of each branch.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In the future, these emerging technologies could provide definitive, curative and theoretically infinite options for the treatment of end-stage kidney disease. Progress in stem cells-based therapies, decellularization techniques and the more recent scientific know-how for the use of the 3D printer and kidney-on-chip could lead to a perfect cellular-based therapy, the futuristic creation of a bioengineered kidney in the lab or to a valid bioartificial alternative.
authors: Wake Forest School of Medicine , Winston-Salem, NC , USA.
authors: Andrea
authors: A
authors: Peloso
authors: Ravi
authors: R
authors: Katari
authors: Sean V
authors: SV
authors: Murphy
authors: Joao P
authors: JP
authors: Zambon
authors: Anna
authors: A
authors: DeFrancesco
authors: Alan C
authors: AC
authors: Farney
authors: Jeffrey
authors: J
authors: Rogers
authors: Robert J
authors: RJ
authors: Stratta
authors: Tommaso M
authors: TM
authors: Manzia
authors: Giuseppe
authors: G
authors: Orlando
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D057005:Bioengineering / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D006801:Humans; D007668:Kidney / Q000166:cytology / Q000502:physiology*; D007676:Kidney Failure, Chronic / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy; D016030:Kidney Transplantation / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends; D011788:Quality of Life; D044968:Regenerative Medicine / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D033581:Stem Cell Transplantation / Q000379:methods / Q000639:trends
keywords: 3D printing; bioartificial kidney; kidney bioengineering; kidney on a chip; kidney regeneration; regenerative medicine; stem cells