title: Stereopsis and amblyopia: A mini-review.
abstract: Amblyopia is a neuro-developmental disorder of the visual cortex that arises from abnormal visual experience early in life. Amblyopia is clinically important because it is a major cause of vision loss in infants and young children. Amblyopia is also of basic interest because it reflects the neural impairment that occurs when normal visual development is disrupted. Amblyopia provides an ideal model for understanding when and how brain plasticity may be harnessed for recovery of function. Over the past two decades there has been a rekindling of interest in developing more effective methods for treating amblyopia, and for extending the treatment beyond the critical period, as exemplified by new clinical trials and new basic research studies. The focus of this review is on stereopsis and its potential for recovery. Impaired stereoscopic depth perception is the most common deficit associated with amblyopia under ordinary (binocular) viewing conditions (Webber & Wood, 2005). Our review of the extant literature suggests that this impairment may have a substantial impact on visuomotor tasks, difficulties in playing sports in children and locomoting safely in older adults. Furthermore, impaired stereopsis may also limit career options for amblyopes. Finally, stereopsis is more impacted in strabismic than in anisometropic amblyopia. Our review of the various approaches to treating amblyopia (patching, perceptual learning, videogames) suggests that there are several promising new approaches to recovering stereopsis in both anisometropic and strabismic amblyopes. However, recovery of stereoacuity may require more active treatment in strabismic than in anisometropic amblyopia. Individuals with strabismic amblyopia have a very low probability of improvement with monocular training; however they fare better with dichoptic training than with monocular training, and even better with direct stereo training.
authors: School of Optometry, Graduate Group in Vision Science and Helen Wills Neuroscience Institute, University of California, Berkeley, Berkeley, CA 94720-2020, USA. Electronic address: dlevi@berkeley.edu.
authors: Dennis M
authors: DM
authors: Levi
authors: Department of Brain & Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627-0268, USA; Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627-0268, USA.
authors: David C
authors: DC
authors: Knill
authors: Department of Brain & Cognitive Sciences, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627-0268, USA; Center for Visual Science, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627-0268, USA; Psychology and Education Sciences (FPSE), University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland.
authors: Daphne
authors: D
authors: Bavelier
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000550:Amblyopia / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000628:therapy; D015858:Anisometropia / Q000503:physiopathology; D002648:Child; D003867:Depth Perception / Q000502:physiology*; D006801:Humans; D013285:Strabismus / Q000503:physiopathology / Q000628:therapy; D015348:Vision, Binocular / Q000502:physiology; D014792:Visual Acuity
keywords: Amblyopia; Anisometropia; Perceptual learning; Stereopsis; Strabismus; Videogames
references: Strabismus. 2006 Mar;14(1):11-9
references: 16513566
references: Vision Res. 2012 Aug 1;66:1-10
references: 22750021
references: Optom Vis Sci. 2009 Jun;86(6):647-52
references: 19390468
references: Doc Ophthalmol. 1980 Oct 15;49(2):303-24
references: 7438987
references: Annu Rev Psychol. 1981;32:477-522
references: 7015996
references: Ophthalmology. 2013 Aug;120(8):1672-80
references: 23622875
references: Br J Ophthalmol. 2008 Jul;92(7):959-64
references: 18480306
references: Vision Res. 2009 Oct;49(21):2535-49
references: 19250947
references: J Vis. 2003;3(5):380-405
references: 12875634
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012 Feb 21;53(2):817-24
references: 22169103
references: J Neurosci. 2010 Nov 10;30(45):14964-71
references: 21068299
references: Vision Res. 2013 Sep 20;90:38-42
references: 23092634
references: Br J Ophthalmol. 1996 Apr;80(4):373-7
references: 8703893
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011 Jun 13;52(7):4169-76
references: 21447685
references: Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1987;7(1):73-9
references: 3658428
references: Exp Brain Res. 2007 Nov;183(3):283-98
references: 17665181
references: Curr Biol. 2013 Apr 22;23(8):R309-10
references: 23618663
references: Eur J Neurosci. 2009 Mar;29(5):1064-70
references: 19291231
references: J Neurophysiol. 2007 Apr;97(4):2612-26
references: 17267754
references: Indian J Occup Environ Med. 2007 May;11(2):71-5
references: 21938219
references: Eye (Lond). 2014 Oct;28(10):1246-53
references: 25060850
references: Optom Vis Sci. 2012 Jun;89(6):827-38
references: 22581119
references: J AAPOS. 2000 Dec;4(6):354-8
references: 11124670
references: Optom Vis Sci. 2014 Jun;91(6):e135-9
references: 24811849
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1985 Jan;26(1):80-7
references: 3967958
references: J AAPOS. 2006 Feb;10(1):37-43
references: 16527678
references: Can J Ophthalmol. 2012 Oct;47(5):399-409
references: 23036539
references: J Opt Soc Am. 1963 Aug;53:994-9
references: 14047836
references: Vision Res. 1992 Aug;32(8):1513-21
references: 1455724
references: Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 1994 Jan;14(1):33-7
references: 8152818
references: J Vis. 2010 Aug 01;10(10):5
references: 20884470
references: Nat Rev Neurosci. 2005 Nov;6(11):877-88
references: 16261181
references: Vision Res. 2015 Sep;114:173-87
references: 25917239
references: Vision Res. 1986;26(4):621-30
references: 3739237
references: Vision Res. 1983;23(2):191-8
references: 6868394
references: PLoS One. 2014 Jun 24;9(6):e100156
references: 24959842
references: Vision Res. 2003 Nov;43(24):2539-58
references: 13129541
references: Vision Res. 1993 Mar-Apr;33(5-6):813-26
references: 8351852
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011 Mar 18;52(3):1531-8
references: 21217107
references: Strabismus. 2011 Sep;19(3):119-28
references: 21870915
references: J AAPOS. 2003 Oct;7(5):333-8
references: 14566315
references: BMJ Case Rep. 2011 Feb 23;2011:
references: 22707543
references: Strabismus. 2011 Sep;19(3):110-8
references: 21870914
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 1980 Jul;19(7):802-9
references: 7390727
references: Curr Opin Neurobiol. 2008 Feb;18(1):101-7
references: 18534841
references: Vision Res. 1992 Nov;32(11):2135-50
references: 1304091
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010 May;51(5):2487-95
references: 20335609
references: Perception. 2006;35(2):145-55
references: 16583761
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012 Nov 15;53(12):7655-65
references: 23074213
references: Vis Neurosci. 2013 Nov;30(5-6):277-87
references: 23879956
references: J Vis. 2011 Jun 30;11(7):
references: 21724567
references: Prog Retin Eye Res. 2013 Sep;36:120-58
references: 23773832
references: Vision Res. 1991;31(1):111-7
references: 2006544
references: Vision Res. 2006 Feb;46(4):506-26
references: 16321418
references: Annu Rev Psychol. 2015 Jan 3;66:197-221
references: 25251494
references: Dev Rev. 2011 Dec 1;31(4):207-239
references: 24648605
references: Ophthalmology. 2013 Oct;120(10):2117-24
references: 23697956
references: Iperception. 2013 Mar 20;4(2):101-10
references: 23755355
references: Ophthalmology. 2003 Nov;110(11):2088-92
references: 14597513
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011 Mar 01;52(3):1851-64
references: 21212188
references: J Cogn Neurosci. 2004 Oct;16(8):1412-25
references: 15509387
references: Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2014 Mar;34(2):199-213
references: 24417338
references: Vision Res. 2008 Dec;48(28):2775-84
references: 18809424
references: Curr Biol. 2012 Mar 20;22(6):R197-206
references: 22440805
references: Vision Res. 2009 Oct;49(21):2566-73
references: 19520103
references: J Neurosci. 2004 Mar 31;24(13):3223-34
references: 15056701
references: J Neurosci. 2010 Sep 15;30(37):12323-8
references: 20844128
references: Vision Res. 1981;21(7):1065-74
references: 7314487
references: Ophthalmology. 2009 Aug;116(8):1475-80
references: 19500854
references: Nature. 1982 Oct 14;299(5884):583-91
references: 6811951
references: Eye (Lond). 1991;5 ( Pt 5):642-3
references: 1794434
references: Optom Vis Sci. 2008 Nov;85(11):1074-81
references: 18981922
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1996 Jun 25;93(13):6830-4
references: 8692904
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007 Nov;48(11):5046-51
references: 17962456
references: J Vis. 2014 May 05;14(5):3
references: 24799622
references: J Vis. 2013 Feb 08;13(2):14
references: 23397039
references: J Vis. 2011 Dec 06;11(14):
references: 22147222
references: Curr Biol. 2008 Dec 23;18(24):1922-6
references: 19062277
references: Front Cell Neurosci. 2011 Nov 24;5:25
references: 22144947
references: Vision Res. 1989;29(8):989-1004
references: 2629214
references: Vision Res. 2011 Jan;51(1):48-57
references: 20932989
references: Nat Neurosci. 2000 May;3(5):496-501
references: 10769391
references: J Vis. 2004 Jun 01;4(6):476-87
references: 15330715
references: Science. 1979 Nov 16;206(4420):852-4
references: 493988
references: Graefes Arch Clin Exp Ophthalmol. 2001 Jul;239(6):400-6
references: 11561786
references: Learn Mem. 2013 May 16;20(6):311-7
references: 23685763
references: Ophthalmology. 2009 Feb;116(2):281-5
references: 19091410
references: Ophthalmic Physiol Opt. 2014 Mar;34(2):146-62
references: 24588532
references: J AAPOS. 2013 Apr;17(2):166-73
references: 23622448
references: Ophthalmology. 2012 Apr;119(4):657-8
references: 22472249
references: Exp Brain Res. 2005 May;162(4):458-73
references: 15754182
references: Prog Retin Eye Res. 2013 Mar;33:67-84
references: 23201436
references: J Vis. 2004 Dec 01;4(12):967-92
references: 15669906
references: Vis Neurosci. 2009 Jan-Feb;26(1):73-80
references: 19152718
references: Curr Biol. 2013 Apr 22;23(8):R308-9
references: 23618662
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2009 Aug;50(8):3711-20
references: 19339741
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2011 Nov 21;52(12):9011-7
references: 22025565
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2005 Jan;46(1):150-4
references: 15623768
references: Perception. 1977;6(5):583-93
references: 593791
references: Exp Brain Res. 2006 May;171(3):371-88
references: 16323004
references: Indian J Ophthalmol. 1997 Sep;45(3):169-71
references: 9475019
references: Vision Res. 2008 Feb;48(5):635-54
references: 18226828
references: Eye (Lond). 2009 Jan;23(1):124-31
references: 17932508
references: J Vis. 2012 Jan 01;12(1):
references: 22214563
references: PLoS Biol. 2011 Aug;9(8):e1001135
references: 21912514
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2007 Mar;48(3):1139-48
references: 17325157
references: Gait Posture. 2009 Aug;30(2):233-8
references: 19487126
references: Clin Exp Optom. 2005 Nov;88(6):365-75
references: 16329744
references: Restor Neurol Neurosci. 2010;28(6):793-802
references: 21209494
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2010 Apr;51(4):2019-23
references: 19933184
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2013 Mar 19;54(3):1998-2003
references: 23372053
references: IEEE Trans Neural Syst Rehabil Eng. 2011 Jun;19(3):280-9
references: 21335317
references: J Vis. 2007 Oct 26;7(2):21.1-17
references: 18217836
references: Clin Exp Optom. 2014 Sep;97(5):389-98
references: 25131694
references: J AAPOS. 2011 Oct;15(5):455-61
references: 22108357
references: Sci Rep. 2013;3:2012
references: 23774670
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2008 Feb;49(2):594-603
references: 18235004
references: Ophthalmology. 2009 Oct;116(10):1990-2000.e1
references: 19592106
references: Arch Ophthalmol. 1983 Jun;101(6):930-2
references: 6860208
references: Vision Res. 2009 Nov;49(22):2653-65
references: 19520102
references: Exp Brain Res. 1999 Apr;125(3):281-6
references: 10229019
references: Eye (Lond). 1996;10 ( Pt 2):233-8
references: 8776453
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2012 Jul 01;53(8):4354-62
references: 22669718
references: Optom Vis Sci. 2010 Sep;87(9):697-704
references: 20622704
references: Accid Anal Prev. 1991 Aug;23(4):225-37
references: 1883464
references: Vision Res. 2011 Jul 1;51(13):1552-66
references: 20974167
references: J Exp Psychol. 1968 May;77(1):155-8
references: 5663587
references: J Vis. 2013 Aug 28;13(10):
references: 23986537
references: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Sep 13;108(37):E733-41
references: 21896742
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2014 Apr 01;55(4):2020-30
references: 24550359
references: Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci. 2014 Apr 15;55(4):2384-91
references: 24508791
references: J Vis. 2011 May 05;11(6):
references: 21546609
references: PLoS One. 2012;7(5):e36611
references: 22649494
references: Arch Ophthalmol. 1981 Mar;99(3):446-52
references: 7213163
references: Arch Ophthalmol. 2008 Dec;126(12):1634-42
references: 19064841
references: Strabismus. 2006 Mar;14(1):3-10
references: 16513565
references: Vision Res. 2008 Jul;48(15):1625-40
references: 18547600
references: Eye (Lond). 1996;10 ( Pt 2):250-8
references: 8776456
references: Curr Biol. 2013 Mar 4;23(5):382-6
references: 23416100
references: Cereb Cortex. 2011 Sep;21(9):2033-45
references: 21263036