title: Ectoparasites of medical and veterinary importance: drug resistance and the need for alternative control methods.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Despite multiple attempts at eradication, many ectoparasites of humans and domestic livestock remain a persistent problem in the modern world. For many years, a range of pesticide drugs including organophosphates, organochlorides and synthetic pyrethroids provided effective control of these parasites; but intensive use of these drugs has led to the evolution of resistance in many target species. This paper aims to review the effectiveness of current control methods and discuss potential alternatives for the long term sustainable control of ectoparasites.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Important medical ectoparasites such as scabies mites, head lice and bed bugs present a significant public health problem, and so adequate control methods are essential. Ectoparasites of domestic livestock and farmed fish (for example sheep scab mites, poultry mites and sea lice) are also of concern given the increasing strain on the world's food supply. These parasites have become resistant to several classes of pesticide, making control very difficult. Recently, an increasing amount of research has focussed on alternative control methods such as insect growth regulators, biological control using essential oils or fungi, as well as vaccine development against some ectoparasites of medical and veterinary importance.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Drug resistance is prevalent in all of the ectoparasites discussed in this review. A wide variety of alternative control methods have been identified, however further research is necessary in order for these to be used to successfully control ectoparasitic diseases in the future.
authors: Institute of Aquaculture, University of Stirling, Stirling, UK.
authors: Carol M
authors: CM
authors: McNair
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001181:Arthropods / Q000187:drug effects*; D001688:Biological Products / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D004351:Drug Resistance; D004478:Ectoparasitic Infestations / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000469:parasitology / Q000662:veterinary; D005399:Fishes / Q000469:parasitology; D006801:Humans; D058751:Livestock / Q000469:parasitology*; D010575:Pesticides / Q000494:pharmacology*; D012867:Skin / Q000469:parasitology*; D014612:Vaccines
chemical_list: D001688:Biological Products; D010575:Pesticides; D014612:Vaccines
keywords: biological control; drug resistance; ectoparasite; vaccination