title: Realistic mixture of illicit drugs impaired the oxidative status of the zebra mussel (Dreissena polymorpha).
abstract: Illicit drugs are considered to be emerging aquatic pollutants since they are commonly found in freshwater ecosystems in the high ng L(-1) to low μg L(-1) range concentrations. Although the environmental occurrence of the most common psychoactive compounds is well known, recently some investigations showed their potential toxicity toward non-target aquatic organisms. However, to date, these studies completely neglected that organisms in the real environment are exposed to a complex mixture, which could lead to dissimilar adverse effects. The present study investigated the oxidative alterations of the freshwater bivalve Dreissena polymorpha induced by a 14-d exposure to an environmentally relevant mixture of the most common illicit drugs found in the aquatic environment, namely cocaine (50 ng L(-1)), benzoylecgonine (300 ng L(-1)), amphetamine (300 ng L(-1)), morphine (100 ng L(-1)) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (50 ng L(-1)). The total oxidant status (TOS) was measured to investigate the increase in the reactive oxygen species' levels, while the activity of antioxidant enzymes and glutathione S-transferase were measured to note the eventual imbalances between pro-oxidant and antioxidant molecules. In addition, oxidative damage was assessed by measuring the levels of lipid peroxidation and protein carbonylation. Significant time-dependent increases of all the antioxidant activities were induced by the mixture. Moreover, the illicit drug mixture significantly increased the levels of carbonylated proteins and caused a slight variation in lipid peroxidation. Our results showed that a mixture of illicit drugs at realistic environmental concentrations can impair the oxidative status of the zebra mussel, posing a serious hazard to the health status of this bivalve species.
authors: Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy. Electronic address: marco.parolini@unimi.it.
authors: Marco
authors: M
authors: Parolini
authors: Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
authors: Stefano
authors: S
authors: Magni
authors: IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
authors: Sara
authors: S
authors: Castiglioni
authors: IRCCS - Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche "Mario Negri", Department of Environmental Health Sciences, Via La Masa 19, 20156 Milan, Italy.
authors: Ettore
authors: E
authors: Zuccato
authors: Department of Biosciences, University of Milan, Via Celoria 26, 20133 Milan, Italy.
authors: Andrea
authors: A
authors: Binelli
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D000975:Antioxidants / Q000378:metabolism; D003042:Cocaine / Q000031:analogs & derivatives; D049875:Dreissena / Q000187:drug effects*; D005618:Fresh Water / Q000737:chemistry; D005982:Glutathione Transferase / Q000378:metabolism; D013287:Illicit Drugs / Q000009:adverse effects* / Q000378:metabolism*; D015227:Lipid Peroxidation / Q000187:drug effects; D018384:Oxidative Stress / Q000187:drug effects; D050050:Protein Carbonylation / Q000187:drug effects; D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species / Q000378:metabolism; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D000975:Antioxidants; D013287:Illicit Drugs; D017382:Reactive Oxygen Species; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical; C005618:benzoylecgonine; D005982:Glutathione Transferase; D003042:Cocaine
keywords: Illicit drugs; Mixture; Oxidative stress; Zebra mussel