title: Testing local and global stressor impacts on a coastal foundation species using an ecologically realistic framework.
abstract: Despite the abundance of literature on organismal responses to multiple environmental stressors, most studies have not matched the timing of experimental manipulations with the temporal pattern of stressors in nature. We test the interactive effects of diel-cycling hypoxia with both warming and decreased salinities using ecologically realistic exposures. Surprisingly, we found no evidence of negative synergistic effects on Olympia oyster growth; rather, we found only additive and opposing effects of hypoxia (detrimental) and warming (beneficial). We suspect that diel-cycling provided a temporal refuge that allowed physiological compensation. We also tested for latent effects of warming and hypoxia to low-salinity tolerance using a seasonal delay between stressor events. However, we did not find a latent effect, rather a threshold survival response to low salinity that was independent of early life-history exposure to warming or hypoxia. The absence of synergism is likely the result of stressor treatments that mirror the natural timing of environmental stressors. We provide environmental context for laboratory experimental data by examining field time series environmental data from four North American west coast estuaries and find heterogeneous environmental signals that characterize each estuary, suggesting that the potential stressor exposure to oysters will drastically differ over moderate spatial scales. This heterogeneity implies that efforts to conserve and restore oysters will require an adaptive approach that incorporates knowledge of local conditions. We conclude that studies of multiple environmental stressors can be greatly improved by integrating ecologically realistic exposure and timing of stressors found in nature with organismal life-history traits.
authors: Bodega Marine Laboratory, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.|Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
authors: Brian S
authors: http://orcid.org/0000-0003-1679-8398
authors: BS
authors: Cheng
authors: Bodega Marine Laboratory, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.|Department of Evolution and Ecology, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
authors: Jillian M
authors: JM
authors: Bible
authors: San Francisco Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Tiburon, CA, USA.
authors: Andrew L
authors: AL
authors: Chang
authors: San Francisco Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Tiburon, CA, USA.
authors: Matthew C
authors: MC
authors: Ferner
authors: Elkhorn Slough National Estuarine Research Reserve, Watsonville, CA, USA.
authors: Kerstin
authors: K
authors: Wasson
authors: Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
authors: Chela J
authors: CJ
authors: Zabin
authors: California State Coastal Conservancy, Oakland, CA, USA.
authors: Marilyn
authors: M
authors: Latta
authors: San Francisco Bay National Estuarine Research Reserve, Tiburon, CA, USA.
authors: Anna
authors: A
authors: Deck
authors: Department of Animal Science, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
authors: Anne E
authors: AE
authors: Todgham
authors: Bodega Marine Laboratory, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.|Department of Environmental Science and Policy, University of California, Davis, Davis, CA, USA.
authors: Edwin D
authors: ED
authors: Grosholz
keywords: 
  Ostrea lurida
  ; Olympia oyster; additive; climate change; diel-cycling hypoxia; latent; multiple stressors; salinity; synergy; warming