title: Risk factors for hydrocephalus and neurological deficit in children born with an encephalocele.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  There is a known association of hydrocephalus with encephaloceles. Risk factors for hydrocephalus and neurological deficit were ascertained in a series of patients born with an encephalocele.
  
  
  METHODS
  A retrospective analysis was undertaken of patients treated for encephaloceles at Children's Hospital Los Angeles between 1994 and 2012. The following factors were evaluated for their prognostic value: age at presentation, sex, location of encephalocele, size, contents, microcephaly, presence of hydrocephalus, CSF leak, associated cranial anomalies, and neurological outcome.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Seventy children were identified, including 38 girls and 32 boys. The median age at presentation was 2 months. The mean follow-up duration was 3.7 years. Encephalocele location was classified as anterior (n = 14) or posterior (n = 56) to the coronal suture. The average maximum encephalocele diameter was 4 cm (range 0.5-23 cm). Forty-seven encephaloceles contained neural tissue. Eight infants presented at birth with CSF leaking from the encephalocele, with 1 being infected. Six patients presented with hydrocephalus, while 11 developed progressive hydrocephalus postoperatively. On univariate analysis, the presence of neural tissue, cranial anomalies, encephalocele size of at least 2 cm, seizure disorder, and microcephaly were each positively associated with hydrocephalus. On multivariate logistic regression modeling, the single prognostic factor for hydrocephalus of borderline statistical significance was the presence of neural tissue (odds ratio [OR] = 5.8, 95% confidence interval [CI] = 0.8-74.0). Fourteen patients had severe developmental delay, 28 had mild/moderate delay, and 28 were neurologically normal. On univariate analysis, the presence of cranial anomalies, larger size of encephalocele, hydrocephalus, and microcephaly were positively associated with neurological deficit. In the multivariable model, the only statistically significant prognostic factor for neurological deficit was presence of hydrocephalus (OR 17.2, 95% CI 1.7-infinity).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In multivariate models, the presence of neural tissue was borderline significantly associated with hydrocephalus and the presence of hydrocephalus was significantly associated with neurological deficit. The location of the encephalocele did not have a statistically significant association with incidence of hydrocephalus or neurological deficit. In contrast to modestly good/fair neurological outcome in children with an encephalocele without hydrocephalus, the presence of hydrocephalus resulted in a far worse neurological outcome.
authors: Division of Neurosurgery, Children's Hospital Los Angeles; and 
authors: Stephanie L
authors: SL
authors: Da Silva
authors: Yasser
authors: Y
authors: Jeelani
authors: Ha
authors: H
authors: Dang
authors: Mark D
authors: MD
authors: Krieger
authors: J Gordon
authors: JG
authors: McComb
mesh_terms: D000367:Age Factors; D065634:Cerebrospinal Fluid Leak / Q000150:complications; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D018450:Disease Progression; D004677:Encephalocele / Q000150:complications* / Q000601:surgery*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D006849:Hydrocephalus / Q000150:complications* / Q000209:etiology / Q000628:therapy; D015994:Incidence; D007223:Infant; D016015:Logistic Models; D015141:Los Angeles / Q000453:epidemiology; D008297:Male; D008831:Microcephaly / Q000150:complications*; D009422:Nervous System Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000209:etiology*; D011237:Predictive Value of Tests; D011379:Prognosis; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D012640:Seizures / Q000209:etiology; D012737:Sex Factors; D016896:Treatment Outcome
keywords: CI = confidence interval; OR = odds ratio; congenital abnormality; encephalocele; hydrocephalus; neurological outcome