title: Evolution of cranioplasty techniques in neurosurgery: historical review, pediatric considerations, and current trends.
abstract: Cranial bone repair is one of the oldest neurosurgical practices. Reconstructing the natural contours of the skull has challenged the ingenuity of surgeons from antiquity to the present day. Given the continuous improvement of neurosurgical and emergency care over the past century, more patients survive such head injuries, thus necessitating more than ever before a simple, safe, and durable means of correcting skull defects. In response, numerous techniques and materials have been devised as the art of cranioplasty has progressed. Although the goals of cranioplasty remain the same, the evolution of techniques and diversity of materials used serves as testimony to the complexity of this task. This paper highlights the evolution of these materials and techniques, with a particular focus on the implications for managing pediatric calvarial repair and emerging trends within the field.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine;
authors.forename: Abdullah H
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Feroze
authors.affiliation: Institute for Stem Cell Biology and Regenerative Medicine, Stanford University School of Medicine;
authors.forename: Graham G
authors.initials: GG
authors.lastname: Walmsley
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, Lucille Packard Children's Hospital; and.
authors.forename: Omar
authors.initials: O
authors.lastname: Choudhri
authors.affiliation: Division of Plastic and Reconstructive Surgery, Department of Surgery, Lucille Packard Children's Hospital, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California.
authors.forename: H Peter
authors.initials: HP
authors.lastname: Lorenz
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, Lucille Packard Children's Hospital; and.
authors.forename: Gerald A
authors.initials: GA
authors.lastname: Grant
authors.affiliation: Division of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Department of Neurosurgery, Lucille Packard Children's Hospital; and.
authors.forename: Michael S B
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Edwards
mesh_terms: D002648:Child; D049668:History, 15th Century; D049669:History, 16th Century; D049670:History, 17th Century; D049671:History, 18th Century; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D049690:History, Ancient; D049691:History, Medieval; D006801:Humans; D009493:Neurosurgery / Q000266:history* / Q000639:trends*; D019635:Neurosurgical Procedures / Q000266:history* / Q000639:trends*; D012886:Skull / Q000601:surgery*
keywords: ASC = adipose-derived stem cell; BMP = bone morphogenetic protein; BMSC = bone marrow derived stem cell; MMA = methyl methacrylate; PEEK = polyetheretherketone; allograft; autograft; bone morphogenetic protein; cranioplasty; hydroxyapatite; iPSC = induced pluripotent stem cell; induced pluripotent stem cells; methylmethacrylate; neurosurgical history; pediatric; surgical technique