title: Gene flow and population structure of a solitary top carnivore in a human-dominated landscape.
abstract: While African leopard populations are considered to be continuous as demonstrated by their high genetic variation, the southernmost leopard population exists in the Eastern and Western Cape, South Africa, where anthropogenic activities may be affecting this population's structure. Little is known about the elusive, last free-roaming top predator in the region and this study is the first to report on leopard population structuring using nuclear DNA. By analyzing 14 microsatellite markers from 40 leopard tissue samples, we aimed to understand the populations' structure, genetic distance, and gene flow (Nm). Our results, based on spatially explicit analysis with Bayesian methods, indicate that leopards in the region exist in a fragmented population structure with lower than expected genetic diversity. Three population groups were identified, between which low to moderate levels of gene flow were observed (Nm 0.5 to 3.6). One subpopulation exhibited low genetic differentiation, suggesting a continuous population structure, while the remaining two appear to be less connected, with low emigration and immigration between these populations. Therefore, genetic barriers are present between the subpopulations, and while leopards in the study region may function as a metapopulation, anthropogenic activities threaten to decrease habitat and movement further. Our results indicate that the leopard population may become isolated within a few generations and suggest that management actions should aim to increase habitat connectivity and reduce human-carnivore conflict. Understanding genetic diversity and connectivity of populations has important conservation implications that can highlight management of priority populations to reverse the effects of human-caused extinctions.
authors.affiliation: School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Private Bag X3, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa ; Landmark Foundation P.O. Box 22, Riversdale, 6670, South Africa.
authors.forename: Jeannine S
authors.initials: JS
authors.lastname: McManus
authors.affiliation: National Zoological Gardens of South Africa P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa ; Genetics Department, University of the Free State P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa.
authors.forename: Desiré L
authors.initials: DL
authors.lastname: Dalton
authors.affiliation: National Zoological Gardens of South Africa P.O. Box 754, Pretoria, 0001, South Africa ; Genetics Department, University of the Free State P.O. Box 339, Bloemfontein, 9300, South Africa.
authors.forename: Antoinette
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Kotzé
authors.affiliation: Landmark Foundation P.O. Box 22, Riversdale, 6670, South Africa.
authors.forename: Bool
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Smuts
authors.affiliation: WildCRU, Oxford University Abingdon Road, Tubney, Abingdon, OX13 5QL, UK.
authors.forename: Amy
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Dickman
authors.affiliation: School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Private Bag X3, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa.
authors.forename: Jason P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Marshal
authors.affiliation: School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences University of the Witwatersrand Private Bag X3, Johannesburg, 2050, South Africa ; Centre for Wildlife Management, University of Pretoria Private Bag X20 Hatfield, Pretoria 0028, South Africa.
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Keith
keywords: Gene flow; Panthera pardus; genetic differentiation; habitat fragmentation; population structure