title: Powder cocaine and crack use in the United States: an examination of risk for arrest and socioeconomic disparities in use.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In light of the current sentencing disparity (18:1) between crack and powder cocaine possession in the United States, we examined socioeconomic correlates of use of each, and relations between use and arrest, to determine who may be at highest risk for arrest and imprisonment.
  
  
  METHODS
  We conducted secondary data analyses on the National Survey on Drug Use and Health, 2009-2012. Data were analyzed for adults age ≥ 18 to determine associations between use and arrest. Socioeconomic correlates of lifetime and annual use of powder cocaine and of crack were delineated using multivariable logistic regression and correlates of frequency of recent use were examined using generalized negative binomial regression.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Crack users were at higher risk than powder cocaine users for reporting a lifetime arrest or multiple recent arrests. Racial minorities were at low risk for powder cocaine use and Hispanics were at low risk for crack use. Blacks were at increased risk for lifetime and recent crack use, but not when controlling for other socioeconomic variables. However, blacks who did use either powder cocaine or crack tended to use at higher frequencies. Higher education and higher family income were negatively associated with crack use although these factors were sometimes risk factors for powder cocaine use.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Crack users are at higher risk of arrest and tend to be of lower socioeconomic status compared to powder cocaine users. These findings can inform US Congress as they review bills (e.g., The Smarter Sentencing Act), which would help eliminate cocaine-related sentencing disparities.
authors.affiliation: Department of Population Health, New York University (NYU) Langone Medical Center, United States; Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, NYU College of Nursing, United States; Center for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies, NYU, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development, United States. Electronic address: joseph.palamar@nyumc.org.
authors.forename: Joseph J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Palamar
authors.affiliation: Departments of Pediatrics and Environmental Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, United States.
authors.forename: Shelby
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Davies
authors.affiliation: Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, NYU College of Nursing, United States; Center for Health, Identity, Behavior & Prevention Studies, NYU, Steinhardt School of Culture, Education and Human Development, United States; Global Institute of Public Health, New York University, United States.
authors.forename: Danielle C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Ompad
authors.affiliation: Center for Drug Use and HIV Research, NYU College of Nursing, United States; NYU College of Nursing, New York, NY, United States.
authors.forename: Charles M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Cleland
authors.affiliation: Departments of Pediatrics and Environmental Medicine, NYU Langone Medical Center, United States.
authors.forename: Michael
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Weitzman
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D044383:Black People; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D016578:Crack Cocaine; D003415:Crime / Q000706:statistics & numerical data; D004522:Educational Status; D005260:Female; D006306:Health Surveys; D006630:Hispanic or Latino; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D011208:Powders; D012306:Risk; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014481:United States / Q000453:epidemiology; D044465:White People; D055815:Young Adult; D001741:Black or African American
chemical_list: D016578:Crack Cocaine; D011208:Powders
keywords: Arrest; Cocaine; Crack; Disparities; Socioeconomic status