title: Using diel movement behavior to infer foraging strategies related to ecological and social factors in elephants.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Adaptive movement behaviors allow individuals to respond to fluctuations in resource quality and distribution in order to maintain fitness. Classically, studies of the interaction between ecological conditions and movement behavior have focused on such metrics as travel distance, velocity, home range size or patch occupancy time as the salient metrics of behavior. Driven by the emergence of very regular high frequency data, more recently the importance of interpreting the autocorrelation structure of movement as a behavioral metric has become apparent. Studying movement of a free ranging African savannah elephant population, we evaluated how two movement metrics, diel displacement (DD) and movement predictability (MP - the degree of autocorrelated movement activity at diel time scales), changed in response to variation in resource availability as measured by the Normalized Difference Vegetation Index. We were able to capitalize on long term (multi-year) yet high resolution (hourly) global positioning system tracking datasets, the sample size of which allows robust analysis of complex models. We use optimal foraging theory predictions as a framework to interpret our results, in particular contrasting the behaviors across changes in social rank and resource availability to infer which movement behaviors at diel time scales may be optimal in this highly social species.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Both DD and MP increased with increasing forage availability, irrespective of rank, reflecting increased energy expenditure and movement predictability during time periods of overall high resource availability. However, significant interactions between forage availability and social rank indicated a stronger response in DD, and a weaker response in MP, with increasing social status.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Relative to high ranking individuals, low ranking individuals expended more energy and exhibited less behavioral movement autocorrelation during lower forage availability conditions, likely reflecting sub-optimal movement behavior. Beyond situations of contest competition, rank status appears to influence the extent to which individuals can modify their movement strategies across periods with differing forage availability. Large-scale spatiotemporal resource complexity not only impacts fine scale movement and optimal foraging strategies directly, but likely impacts rates of inter- and intra-specific interactions and competition resulting in socially based movement responses to ecological dynamics.
authors.affiliation: Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, 80523-1474 Ft. Collins, Colorado USA.
authors.forename: Leo
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Polansky
authors.affiliation: Save the Elephants, P.O. Box 54667, Nairobi, Kenya ; Department of Zoology, University of Oxford, South Parks Road, Oxford, OX1 3PS UK.
authors.forename: Iain
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Douglas-Hamilton
authors.affiliation: Department of Fish, Wildlife, and Conservation Biology, Colorado State University, 80523-1474 Ft. Collins, Colorado USA ; Save the Elephants, P.O. Box 54667, Nairobi, Kenya ; Graduate Degree Program in Ecology, Colorado State University, 80523-1474, Ft. Collins, Colorado USA.
authors.forename: George
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Wittemyer
keywords: Fourier analysis; Generalized linear mixed model; Movement ecology; Optimal foraging theory; Savannah; Socio-ecological model; Wavelets