title: Chloroquine analogues in drug discovery: new directions of uses, mechanisms of actions and toxic manifestations from malaria to multifarious diseases.
abstract: Antimalarial drugs (e.g. chloroquine and its close structural analogues) were developed primarily to treat malaria; however, they are beneficial for many dermatological, immunological, rheumatological and severe infectious diseases, for which they are used mostly today. Chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine, two of the most fascinating drugs developed in the last 50 years, are increasingly recognized for their effectiveness in myriad non-malarial diseases. In advanced research, chloroquine and hydroxychloroquine have been shown to have various immunomodulatory and immunosuppressive effects, and currently have established roles in the management of rheumatic diseases, lupus erythematosus (different forms) and skin diseases, and in the treatment of different forms of cancer. Recently, chloroquine analogues have also been found to have metabolic, cardiovascular, antithrombotic and antineoplastic effects. This review is concerned with the lysosomotropic, anti-inflammatory and immunomodulatory mechanisms of chloroquine, hydroxychloroquine, quinacrine and related analogues, and the current evidence for both their beneficial effects and potential adverse manifestations in various diseases.
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacy, University of Rajshahi, Rajshahi 6205, Bangladesh alimalbari347@ru.ac.bd.
authors.forename: Md Abdul Alim
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Al-Bari
mesh_terms: D000962:Antimalarials / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002317:Cardiovascular Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use; D002738:Chloroquine / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D058492:Drug Repositioning / Q000639:trends*; D064420:Drug-Related Side Effects and Adverse Reactions; D006801:Humans; D006886:Hydroxychloroquine / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D007155:Immunologic Factors / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology / Q000627:therapeutic use
chemical_list: D000962:Antimalarials; D000970:Antineoplastic Agents; D002317:Cardiovascular Agents; D007155:Immunologic Factors; D006886:Hydroxychloroquine; D002738:Chloroquine
keywords: SLE; hydroxychloroquine; lysosomotropic actions; quinacrine; therapies; toxicity profiles