title: A role for Galgt1 in skeletal muscle regeneration.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Cell surface glycans are known to play vital roles in muscle membrane stability and muscle disease, but to date, roles for glycans in muscle regeneration have been less well understood. Here, we describe a role for complex gangliosides synthesized by the Galgt1 gene in muscle regeneration.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cardiotoxin-injected wild type (WT) and Galgt1 (-/-) muscles, and mdx and Galgt1 (-/-) mdx muscles, were used to study regeneration in response to acute and chronic injury, respectively. Muscle tissue was analyzed at various time points for morphometric measurements and for gene expression changes in satellite cell and muscle differentiation markers by quantitative real-time polymerase chain reaction (qRT-PCR). Primary cell cultures were used to measure growth rate and myotube formation and to identify Galgt1 expression changes after cardiotoxin by fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). Primary cell culture and tissue sections were also used to quantify satellite cell apoptosis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A query of a microarray data set of cardiotoxin-induced mouse muscle gene expression changes identified Galgt1 as the most upregulated glycosylation gene immediately after muscle injury. This was validated by qRT-PCR as a 23-fold upregulation in Galgt1 expression 1 day after cardiotoxin administration and a 16-fold upregulation in 6-week-old mdx muscles. These changes correlated with increased expression of Galgt1 protein and GM1 ganglioside in mononuclear muscle cells. In the absence of Galgt1, cardiotoxin-induced injury led to significantly reduced myofiber diameters after 14 and 28 days of regeneration. Myofiber diameters were also significantly reduced in Galgt1-deficient mdx mice compared to age-matched mdx controls, and this was coupled with a significant increase in the loss of muscle tissue. Cardiotoxin-injected Galgt1 (-/-) muscles showed reduced gene expression of the satellite cell marker Pax7 and increased expression of myoblast markers MyoD, Myf5, and Myogenin after injury along with a tenfold increase in apoptosis of Pax7-positive muscle cells. Cultured primary Galgt1 (-/-) muscle cells showed a normal growth rate but demonstrated premature fusion into myofibers, resulting in an overall impairment of myofiber formation coupled with a threefold increase in muscle cell apoptosis.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These experiments demonstrate a role for Galgt1 in skeletal muscle regeneration and suggest that complex gangliosides made by Galgt1 modulate the survival and differentiation of satellite cells.
authors.affiliation: Center for Gene Therapy, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, USA.
authors.forename: Neha
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Singhal
authors.affiliation: Center for Gene Therapy, The Research Institute at Nationwide Children's Hospital, Columbus, USA ; Department of Pediatrics, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, OH 43205 USA ; Department of Physiology and Cell Biology, The Ohio State University College of Medicine, 700 Children's Drive, Columbus, OH 43205 USA.
authors.forename: Paul T
authors.initials: PT
authors.lastname: Martin
keywords: Apoptosis; Duchenne muscular dystrophy; Ganglioside; Muscle regeneration; Satellite cell