title: Evolution of alternative methodologies of scorpion antivenoms production.
abstract: Scorpionism represents a serious public health problem resulting in the death of children and debilitated individuals. Scorpion sting treatment employs various strategies including the use of specific medicines such as antiserum, especially for patients with severe symptoms. In 1909 Charles Todd described the production of an antiserum against the venom of the scorpion Buthus quinquestriatus. Based on Todd's work, researchers worldwide began producing antiserum using the same approach i.e., immunization of horses with crude venom as antigen. Despite achieving satisfactory results using this approach, researchers in this field have developed alternative approaches for the production of scorpion antivenom serum. In this review, we describe the work published by experts in toxinology to the development of scorpion venom antiserum. Methods and results describing the use of specific antigens, detoxified venom or toxins, purified toxins and or venom fractions, native toxoids, recombinant toxins, synthetic peptides, monoclonal and recombinant antibodies, and alternative animal models are presented.
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil. Electronic address: anderson.o.carmo@gmail.com.
authors.forename: A O
authors.initials: AO
authors.lastname: Carmo
authors.affiliation: Department of Molecular Biology & Genetics, Democritus University of Thrace, University Campus, 69100 Komotini, Greece. Electronic address: maria.chatzaki@gmail.com.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Chatzaki
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil. Electronic address: carolinacampolina@yahoo.com.br.
authors.forename: C C R
authors.initials: CC
authors.lastname: Horta
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil. Electronic address: barbara_fmag@hotmail.com.
authors.forename: B F
authors.initials: BF
authors.lastname: Magalhães
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil. Electronic address: barbarab.mendes@gmail.com.
authors.forename: B B R
authors.initials: BB
authors.lastname: Oliveira-Mendes
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Bioquímica e Imunologia, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil. Electronic address: olortegi@icb.ufmg.br.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Chávez-Olórtegui
authors.affiliation: Departamento de Biologia Geral, Instituto de Ciências Biológicas, Universidade Federal de Minas Gerais, Avenida Presidente Antônio Carlos, 6627, Pampulha, Belo Horizonte, MG 31270-901, Brazil. Electronic address: kalapothakis@gmail.com.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Kalapothakis
mesh_terms: D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000997:Antivenins / Q000096:biosynthesis* / Q000266:history / Q000627:therapeutic use; D049672:History, 19th Century; D049673:History, 20th Century; D049674:History, 21st Century; D006801:Humans; D007114:Immunization / Q000379:methods*; D023421:Models, Animal; D011994:Recombinant Proteins / Q000627:therapeutic use; D065008:Scorpion Stings / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000453:epidemiology*; D012604:Scorpion Venoms / Q000037:antagonists & inhibitors* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000633:toxicity; D013045:Species Specificity
chemical_list: D000911:Antibodies, Monoclonal; D000997:Antivenins; D011994:Recombinant Proteins; D012604:Scorpion Venoms
keywords: Antivenom; Immunization; Scorpion; Scorpionism; Serum neutralization; Venom