Associations of stigma with negative health outcomes for people living with HIV in the Gambia: implications for key populations.
BACKGROUND
The HIV epidemic in the Gambia is concentrated among stigmatized key populations. This study explores the relationship between 3 types of HIV-related stigma and 3 health outcomes among people living with HIV (PLHIV) in the Gambia.


METHODS
Three hundred seventeen PLHIV from PLHIV support groups in the Gambia were surveyed using the PLHIV Stigma Index.


RESULTS
Enacted stigma in health care settings was significantly associated with avoiding or delaying seeking care [adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 3.03, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 1.24 to 7.89]; enacted stigma in the household or community (aOR = 1.21, 95% CI = 0.98 to 1.49) and internal stigma (aOR = 1.47, 95% CI = 0.96 to 2.22) were marginally associated. Enacted stigma in health care settings was significantly associated with non-use of antiretroviral therapy (aOR = 0.52, 95% CI = 0.31 to 0.88), whereas internal stigma and enacted stigma in the household or community were not. Enacted stigma in the household or community (aOR = 0.75, 95% CI = 0.64 to 0.87) and internal stigma (aOR = 0.69, 95% CI = 0.50 to 0.93) were significantly associated with poorer self-reported health status, whereas enacted stigma in health care settings was not.


CONCLUSIONS
PLHIV in the Gambia face stigma regardless of identity as members of key populations, who may face dual stigma. Stigma mitigation represents a potentially important component of a comprehensive package of services to improve the HIV care continuum in the Gambia. Targeted interventions that address stigma with health care workers could facilitate antiretroviral therapy use and timely care seeking for PLHIV. Interventions to address internal stigma and enacted stigma in the household and community may yield additional dividends for the overall health of PLHIV. Examining only 1 domain of stigma may not be sufficient to understand the effect of stigma on a specific health outcome.
*Department of Population, Family, and Reproductive Health, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD; †Center for Public Health and Human Rights; ‡Joint United Nations Programme on HIV/AIDS (UNAIDS), Mbabane, Swaziland; and §Department of Epidemiology, Center for Public Health and Human Rights.
Sarah M
SM
Peitzmeier
Ashley
A
Grosso
Amanda
A
Bowes
Nuha
N
Ceesay
Stefan D
SD
Baral
D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D019380:Anti-HIV Agents / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D005260:Female; D005714:Gambia / Q000453:epidemiology; D015658:HIV Infections / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000523:psychology*; D020276:HIV Long-Term Survivors; D007722:Health Knowledge, Attitudes, Practice; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D016017:Odds Ratio; D011287:Prejudice; D057545:Social Stigma; D055815:Young Adult
D019380:Anti-HIV Agents