title: A dual-task paradigm for behavioral and neurobiological studies in nonhuman primates.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The dual-task paradigm is a procedure in which subjects are asked to perform two behavioral tasks concurrently, each of which involves a distinct goal with a unique stimulus-response association. Due to the heavy demand on subject's cognitive abilities, human studies using this paradigm have provided detailed insights regarding how the components of cognitive systems are functionally organized and implemented. Although dual-task paradigms are widely used in human studies, they are seldom used in nonhuman animal studies.
  
  
  METHODS
  We propose a novel dual-task paradigm for monkeys that requires the simultaneous performance of two cognitively demanding component tasks, each of which uses an independent effector for behavioral responses (hand and eyes). We provide a detailed description of an optimal training protocol for this paradigm, which has been lacking in the existing literature.
  
  
  RESULTS
  An analysis of behavioral performance showed that the proposed dual-task paradigm (1) was quickly learned by monkeys (less than 40 sessions) with step-by-step training protocols, (2) produced specific behavioral effects, known as dual-task interference in human studies, and (3) achieved rigid and independent control of the effectors for behavioral responses throughout the trial.
  
  
  METHODS
  The proposed dual-task paradigm has a scalable task structure, in that each of the two component tasks can be easily replaced by other tasks, while preserving the overall structure of the paradigm.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This paradigm should be useful for investigating executive control that underlies dual-task performance at both the behavioral and neuronal levels.
authors.affiliation: Department of Experimental Psychology, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3UD, UK; Japan Society for the Promotion of Science (JSPS), Tokyo 102-8472, Japan; Kokoro Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan. Electronic address: kei.watanabe@psy.ox.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Kei
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Watanabe
authors.affiliation: Kokoro Research Center, Kyoto University, Kyoto 606-8501, Japan. Electronic address: funahashi.shintaro.2z@kyoto-u.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Shintaro
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Funahashi
mesh_terms: D000704:Analysis of Variance; D000818:Animals; D001288:Attention / Q000502:physiology*; D003216:Conditioning, Operant; D003463:Cues; D005133:Eye Movements; D005260:Female; D008252:Macaca fascicularis / Q000502:physiology; D008297:Male; D008568:Memory / Q000502:physiology*; D010775:Photic Stimulation; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology*; D011930:Reaction Time / Q000502:physiology*
keywords: Behavioral neurophysiology; Dual-task paradigm; Monkey; Training protocol