title: [Occult fractures of extremities in adults and children. Exemplified by foot and ankle injuries].
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Occult fractures in children and adults cannot by definition be diagnosed by conventional radiographs. These injuries are usually recognized as bone marrow edema by magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). There are no randomized controlled trials or prospective cohort studies concerning the correct management of occult fractures and, therefore, no evidence-based treatment guidelines can be drafted.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  This article summarizes the current diagnostic and treatment concepts for occult fractures under special consideration of foot and ankle injuries.
  
  
  METHODS
  A selective search of the current literature was performed and also taking own experience into consideration.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The clinical prognosis of occult fractures is generally good and there is no evidence that these lesions need specific treatment. Besides forensic applications and problems pursuant to insurance law, MRI examination is only indicated when conventional radiographs are unremarkable, pain persists for an unusually long period of time and when a relevant therapeutic consequence can be expected from the MRI results. Classical pitfalls are combinations of occult fractures with potentially unstable ligamentous injuries and patients with disordered pain perception as in cases of diabetic polyneuropathy, as the common therapeutic concept of weight bearing according to pain is not suitable for these patients and can lead to severe complications.
authors.affiliation: Klinik für Allgemeine, Unfall-, Hand- und Plastische Chirurgie, Klinikum der Ludwig-Maximilians-Universität, Campus Innenstadt, Nußbaumstr. 20, 80336, München, Deutschland, Markus.Regauer@med.uni-muenchen.de.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Regauer
authors.forename: W
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Mutschler
mesh_terms: D064386:Ankle Fractures / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy*; D001855:Bone Marrow Diseases / Q000209:etiology* / Q000473:pathology / Q000628:therapy; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D004487:Edema / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000209:etiology / Q000517:prevention & control; D018409:Foot Injuries / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000628:therapy; D005596:Fractures, Closed / Q000150:complications / Q000175:diagnosis* / Q000628:therapy*; D006801:Humans