title: Nipple pain associated with breastfeeding: incorporating current neurophysiology into clinical reasoning.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  New mothers frequently experience breastfeeding problems, in particular nipple pain. This is often attributed to compression, skin damage, infection or dermatitis.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To outline an integrated approach to breastfeeding pain assessment that seeks to enhance current practice.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our clinical reasoning model resolves the complexity of pain into three categories: local stimulation, external influences and central modulation. Tissue pathology, damage or inflammation leads to local stimulation of nociceptors. External influences such as creams and breast pumps, as well as factors related to the mother, the infant and the maternal-infant interaction, may exacerbate the pain. Central nervous system modulation includes the enhancement of nociceptive transmission at the spinal cord and modification of the descending inhibitory influences. A broad range of factors can modulate pain through central mechanisms including maternal illness, exhaustion, lack of support, anxiety, depression or history of abuse. General practitioners (GPs) can use this model to explain nipple pain in complex settings, thus increasing management options for women.
authors.affiliation: MBBS, MMed, PhD, IBCLC, FABM, FILCA, Principal Research Fellow, Judith Lumley Centre, La Trobe University, Melbourne, VIC.
authors.forename: Lisa H
authors.initials: LH
authors.lastname: Amir
authors.forename: Lester E
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.forename: Miranda L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Buck
mesh_terms: D001941:Breast Diseases / Q000628:therapy*; D001942:Breast Feeding / Q000009:adverse effects*; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D009482:Neurophysiology / Q000379:methods*; D009558:Nipples; D010146:Pain / Q000209:etiology*; D059408:Pain Management / Q000379:methods*