title: The leaf angle distribution of natural plant populations: assessing the canopy with a novel software tool.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Three-dimensional canopies form complex architectures with temporally and spatially changing leaf orientations. Variations in canopy structure are linked to canopy function and they occur within the scope of genetic variability as well as a reaction to environmental factors like light, water and nutrient supply, and stress. An important key measure to characterize these structural properties is the leaf angle distribution, which in turn requires knowledge on the 3-dimensional single leaf surface. Despite a large number of 3-d sensors and methods only a few systems are applicable for fast and routine measurements in plants and natural canopies. A suitable approach is stereo imaging, which combines depth and color information that allows for easy segmentation of green leaf material and the extraction of plant traits, such as leaf angle distribution.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We developed a software package, which provides tools for the quantification of leaf surface properties within natural canopies via 3-d reconstruction from stereo images. Our approach includes a semi-automatic selection process of single leaves and different modes of surface characterization via polygon smoothing or surface model fitting. Based on the resulting surface meshes leaf angle statistics are computed on the whole-leaf level or from local derivations. We include a case study to demonstrate the functionality of our software. 48 images of small sugar beet populations (4 varieties) have been analyzed on the base of their leaf angle distribution in order to investigate seasonal, genotypic and fertilization effects on leaf angle distributions. We could show that leaf angle distributions change during the course of the season with all varieties having a comparable development. Additionally, different varieties had different leaf angle orientation that could be separated in principle component analysis. In contrast nitrogen treatment had no effect on leaf angles.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  We show that a stereo imaging setup together with the appropriate image processing tools is capable of retrieving the geometric leaf surface properties of plants and canopies. Our software package provides whole-leaf statistics but also a local estimation of leaf angles, which may have great potential to better understand and quantify structural canopy traits for guided breeding and optimized crop management.
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bio and Geosciences, IBG-2: Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Wilhelm-Johnen-Str, Jülich, 52425 Germany.
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Müller-Linow
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bio and Geosciences, IBG-2: Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Wilhelm-Johnen-Str, Jülich, 52425 Germany.
authors.forename: Francisco
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Pinto-Espinosa
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bio and Geosciences, IBG-2: Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Wilhelm-Johnen-Str, Jülich, 52425 Germany.
authors.forename: Hanno
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Scharr
authors.affiliation: Institute of Bio and Geosciences, IBG-2: Plant Sciences, Forschungszentrum Jülich GmbH, Wilhelm-Johnen-Str, Jülich, 52425 Germany.
authors.forename: Uwe
authors.initials: U
authors.lastname: Rascher
keywords: 3-d reconstruction; Canopy; Leaf angle; Leaf angle distribution; Leaf modeling; Leaf segmentation; Stereo imaging; Structural canopy straits