title: Etiology of childhood bacteremia and timely antibiotics administration in the emergency department.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Bacteremia is now an uncommon presentation to the children's emergency department (ED) but is associated with significant morbidity and mortality. Its evolving etiology may affect the ability of clinicians to initiate timely, appropriate antimicrobial therapy.
  
  
  METHODS
  A retrospective time series analysis of bacteremia was conducted in the Alder Hey Children's Hospital ED between 2001 and 2011. Data on significant comorbidities, time to empirical therapy, and antibiotic susceptibility were recorded.
  
  
  RESULTS
  A total of 575 clinical episodes were identified, and Streptococcus pneumoniae (n = 109), Neisseria meningitidis (n = 96), and Staphylococcus aureus (n = 89) were commonly isolated. The rate of bacteremia was 1.42 per 1000 ED attendances (95% confidence interval: 1.31-1.53). There was an annual reduction of 10.6% (6.6%-14.5%) in vaccine-preventable infections, and an annual increase of 6.7% (1.2%-12.5%) in Gram-negative infections. The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine was associated with a 49% (32%-74%) reduction in pneumococcal bacteremia. The rate of health care-associated bacteremia increased from 0.17 to 0.43 per 1000 ED attendances (P = .002). Susceptibility to empirical antibiotics was reduced (96.3%-82.6%; P < .001). Health care-associated bacteremia was associated with an increased length of stay of 3.9 days (95% confidence interval: 2.3-5.8). Median time to antibiotics was 184 minutes (interquartile range: 63-331) and 57 (interquartile range: 27-97) minutes longer in Gram-negative bacteremia than in vaccine-preventable bacteremia.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Changes in the etiology of pediatric bacteremia have implications for prompt, appropriate empirical treatment. Increasingly, pediatric bacteremia in the ED is health care associated, which increases length of inpatient stay. Prompt, effective antimicrobial administration requires new tools to improve recognition, in addition to continued etiological surveillance.
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom; adam.irwin@liverpool.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Adam D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Irwin
authors.affiliation: Departments of Microbiology, and.
authors.forename: Richard J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Drew
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Philippa
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Marshall
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Kha
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Nguyen
authors.affiliation: Pediatrics, Alder Hey Children's Hospital NHS Foundation Trust, Liverpool, United Kingdom; and.
authors.forename: Emily
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Hoyle
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Kate A
authors.initials: KA
authors.lastname: Macfarlane
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Hoying F
authors.initials: HF
authors.lastname: Wong
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Ellen
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Mekonnen
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Matthew
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Hicks
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Tom
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Steele
authors.affiliation: Departments of Microbiology, and.
authors.forename: Christine
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Gerrard
authors.affiliation: Departments of Microbiology, and.
authors.forename: Fiona
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Hardiman
authors.affiliation: Department of Women's and Children's Health, Institute of Translational Medicine, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom;
authors.forename: Paul S
authors.initials: PS
authors.lastname: McNamara
authors.affiliation: Departments of Epidemiology and Population Health, and.
authors.forename: Peter J
authors.initials: PJ
authors.lastname: Diggle
authors.affiliation: Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, Institute of Infection and Global Health, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Enitan D
authors.initials: ED
authors.lastname: Carrol
mesh_terms: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D016470:Bacteremia / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000188:drug therapy* / Q000209:etiology / Q000382:microbiology* / Q000401:mortality; D002648:Child; D002675:Child, Preschool; D015897:Comorbidity; D061345:Early Medical Intervention; D004636:Emergency Service, Hospital; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007223:Infant; D008297:Male; D008826:Microbial Sensitivity Tests; D009345:Neisseria meningitidis / Q000187:drug effects / Q000302:isolation & purification; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D012307:Risk Factors; D013211:Staphylococcus aureus / Q000187:drug effects / Q000302:isolation & purification; D013296:Streptococcus pneumoniae / Q000187:drug effects; D016019:Survival Analysis; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D006113:United Kingdom
chemical_list: D000900:Anti-Bacterial Agents
keywords: antimicrobial resistance; bacteremia; children; health care associated