title: Depression and Cognitive Impairment Are Associated with Low Education and Literacy Status and Smoking but Not Caffeine Consumption in Urban African Americans and White Adults.
abstract: Background:Recent research has linked caffeine consumption with a lower risk for depression and cognitive decline. However, no studies have examined the relationship in an African American compared to a white, socioeconomically diverse representative urban sample.Methods:Data from a cross-sectional study were used to determine the associations of caffeine use with depressive symptomatology and cognition in a sample of 1,724 participants in the Healthy Aging in Neighborhoods of Diversity across the Life Span (HANDLS) study. The United States Department of Agriculture's Automated Multiple Pass Method was used by trained interviewers to collect two, in-person 24-hour dietary recalls. Depressive symptoms and global cognition were assessed using two well-validated measures: the Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depressive Scale (CES-D) and Mini Mental State Examination (MMSE), respectively. Usual caffeine intake was based on both recalls. Data were analyzed witht- and chi-square tests, correlation analysis, and ordinal logistic regression.Results:African Americans consumed significantly less caffeine than did whites (89.0±3.2 and 244.0±8.7 mg respectively). Caffeine consumption was not associated with depressive symptomatology or global cognition. Age, less than 5th grade literacy, and less than high school education were significantly associated with both depressive symptoms and cognitive function. Smokers had a 43% greater risk for depression but only a 3% higher risk for cognitive impairment.Conclusion:The low level of dietary caffeine intake in combination with smoking among HANDLS study participants may have influenced the lack of association with depressive symptomatology or global cognition. For this sample, low literacy and education appear more highly associated with depressive symptoms and cognitive function than caffeine intake.
authors.affiliation: Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware.
authors.forename: Andrew V
authors.initials: AV
authors.lastname: Kuczmarski
authors.affiliation: Department of Behavioral Health and Nutrition, University of Delaware , Newark, Delaware.
authors.forename: Nancy
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Cotugna
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences , National Institute on Aging , National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland.
authors.forename: Marc A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Mason
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences , National Institute on Aging , National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland.
authors.forename: Michele K
authors.initials: MK
authors.lastname: Evans
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Epidemiology and Population Sciences , National Institute on Aging , National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, Maryland.
authors.forename: Alan B
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Zonderman