title: Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs): a review on occurrence, fate and toxicity in the environment.
abstract: Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs) are widely applied in household and industrial products. Most uses of QACs can be expected to lead to their release to wastewater treatment plants (WWTPs) and then dispersed into various environmental compartments through sewage effluent and sludge land application. Although QACs are considered to be aerobically biodegradable, the degradation is affected by its chemical structures, dissolved oxygen concentration, complexing with anionic surfactants, etc. High abundance of QACs has been detected in sediment and sludge samples due to its strong sorption and resistance to biodegradation under anoxic/anaerobic conditions. QACs are toxic to a lot of aquatic organisms including fish, daphnids, algae, rotifer and microorganisms employed in wastewater treatment systems. And antibiotic resistance has emerged in microorganisms due to excessive use of QACs in household and industrial applications. The occurrence of QACs in the environment is correlated with anthropogenic activities, such as wastewater discharge from WWTPs or single source polluters, and sludge land application. This article also reviews the analytical methods for determination of QACs in environmental compartments including surface water, wastewater, sewage sludge and sediments.
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China. Electronic address: zhangchang@hnu.edu.cn.
authors.forename: Chang
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Zhang
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
authors.forename: Fang
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Cui
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China. Electronic address: zgming@hnu.edu.cn.
authors.forename: Guang-ming
authors.initials: GM
authors.lastname: Zeng
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
authors.forename: Min
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Jiang
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
authors.forename: Zhong-zhu
authors.initials: ZZ
authors.lastname: Yang
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
authors.forename: Zhi-gang
authors.initials: ZG
authors.lastname: Yu
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
authors.forename: Meng-ying
authors.initials: MY
authors.lastname: Zhu
authors.affiliation: College of Environmental Science and Engineering, Hunan University, Changsha 410082, China; Key Laboratory of Environmental Biology and Pollution Control, Hunan University, Ministry of Education, Changsha 410082, China.
authors.forename: Liu-qing
authors.initials: LQ
authors.lastname: Shen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D059001:Aquatic Organisms; D001673:Biodegradation, Environmental; D004784:Environmental Monitoring; D000644:Quaternary Ammonium Compounds / Q000032:analysis* / Q000633:toxicity; D062065:Wastewater; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis* / Q000633:toxicity
chemical_list: D000644:Quaternary Ammonium Compounds; D062065:Wastewater; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
keywords: Biodegradation; Determination; Quaternary ammonium compounds (QACs); Sorption; Toxicity