title: Irrigation water quality influences heavy metal uptake by willows in biosolids.
abstract: Phytoextraction is an effective method to remediate heavy metal contaminated landscapes but is often applied for single metal contaminants. Plants used for phytoextraction may not always be able to grow in drier environments without irrigation. This study investigated if willows (Salix x reichardtii A. Kerner) can be used for phytoextraction of multiple metals in biosolids, an end-product of the wastewater treatment process, and if irrigation with reclaimed and freshwater influences the extraction process. A plantation of willows was established directly onto a tilled stockpile of metal-contaminated biosolids and irrigated with slightly saline reclaimed water (EC ∼2 dS/cm) at a wastewater processing plant in Victoria, Australia. Biomass was harvested annually and analysed for heavy metal content. Phytoextraction of cadmium, copper, nickel and zinc was benchmarked against freshwater irrigated willows. The minimum irrigation rate of 700 mm per growing season was sufficient for willows to grow and extract metals. Increasing irrigation rates produced no differences in total biomass and also no differences in the extraction of heavy metals. The reclaimed water reduced both the salinity and the acidity of the biosolids significantly within the first 12 months after irrigation commenced and after three seasons the salinity of the biosolids had dropped to <15% of initial values. A flushing treatment to remove excess salts was therefore not necessary. Irrigation had an impact on biosolids attributes such as salinity and pH, and that this had an influence on metal extraction. Reclaimed water irrigation reduced the biosolid pH and this was associated with reductions of the extraction of Ni and Zn, it did not influence the extraction of Cu and enhanced the phytoextraction of Cd, which was probably related to the high chloride content of the reclaimed water. Our results demonstrate that flood-irrigation with reclaimed water was a successful treatment to grow willows in a dry climate. However, the reclaimed water can also change biosolids properties, which will influence the effectiveness of willows to extract different metals.
authors.affiliation: School of Botany, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
authors.forename: W Scott
authors.initials: WS
authors.lastname: Laidlaw
authors.affiliation: School of Botany, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria 3010, Australia.
authors.forename: Alan J M
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Baker
authors.affiliation: Technology and Marine Research, Melbourne Water, 990 Latrobe Street, Docklands, Victoria 3008, Australia.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Gregory
authors.affiliation: School of Ecosystem and Forest Sciences, The University of Melbourne, 500 Yarra Boulevard, Richmond, Victoria 3121, Australia; Terrestrial Ecosystem Research, Department of Microbiology and Ecosystem Science, University of Vienna, Althanstrasse 14, 1090 Vienna, Austria. Electronic address: sarndt@unimelb.edu.au.
authors.forename: Stefan K
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Arndt
mesh_terms: D057914:Agricultural Irrigation; D001673:Biodegradation, Environmental; D004785:Environmental Pollutants / Q000378:metabolism*; D006801:Humans; D019216:Metals, Heavy / Q000378:metabolism*; D032108:Salix; D012722:Sewage; D014739:Victoria; D062065:Wastewater / Q000032:analysis; D060753:Water Quality
chemical_list: D004785:Environmental Pollutants; D019216:Metals, Heavy; D012722:Sewage; D062065:Wastewater
keywords: Biosolids; Heavy metal; Irrigation; Phytoextraction; Phytoremediation; Reclaimed water