title: Arctic marine mammal population status, sea ice habitat loss, and conservation recommendations for the 21st century.
abstract: Arctic marine mammals (AMMs) are icons of climate change, largely because of their close association with sea ice. However, neither a circumpolar assessment of AMM status nor a standardized metric of sea ice habitat change is available. We summarized available data on abundance and trend for each AMM species and recognized subpopulation. We also examined species diversity, the extent of human use, and temporal trends in sea ice habitat for 12 regions of the Arctic by calculating the dates of spring sea ice retreat and fall sea ice advance from satellite data (1979-2013). Estimates of AMM abundance varied greatly in quality, and few studies were long enough for trend analysis. Of the AMM subpopulations, 78% (61 of 78) are legally harvested for subsistence purposes. Changes in sea ice phenology have been profound. In all regions except the Bering Sea, the duration of the summer (i.e., reduced ice) period increased by 5-10 weeks and by >20 weeks in the Barents Sea between 1979 and 2013. In light of generally poor data, the importance of human use, and forecasted environmental changes in the 21st century, we recommend the following for effective AMM conservation: maintain and improve comanagement by local, federal, and international partners; recognize spatial and temporal variability in AMM subpopulation response to climate change; implement monitoring programs with clear goals; mitigate cumulative impacts of increased human activity; and recognize the limits of current protected species legislation.
authors.affiliation: Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, 1013 NE 40th Street, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98105, U.S.A.|Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 570, 3900, Nuuk, Greenland.
authors.forename: Kristin L
authors.initials: KL
authors.lastname: Laidre
authors.affiliation: Polar Science Center, Applied Physics Laboratory, 1013 NE 40th Street, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, 98105, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Harry
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Stern
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, N-9296, Tromsø, Norway.
authors.forename: Kit M
authors.initials: KM
authors.lastname: Kovacs
authors.affiliation: School of Fisheries and Ocean Sciences, University of Alaska, 73-4388, Paiaha Street, Kailua Kona, HI 96740, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Lloyd
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Lowry
authors.affiliation: National Marine Fisheries Service, National Oceanographic and Atmospheric Administration, 7600 Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA, 98115, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Sue E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Moore
authors.affiliation: U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, 1011 East Tudor Road, Anchorage, AK, 99503, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Eric V
authors.initials: EV
authors.lastname: Regehr
authors.affiliation: Fisheries and Oceans Canada, Freshwater Institute, 501 University Crescent, Winnipeg, MB, R3T 2N6, Canada.
authors.forename: Steven H
authors.initials: SH
authors.lastname: Ferguson
authors.affiliation: Natural History Museum, University of Oslo, P.O. Box 1172, Blindern, N-0318, Oslo, Norway.
authors.forename: Øystein
authors.initials: Ø
authors.lastname: Wiig
authors.affiliation: National Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 7600, Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Peter
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Boveng
authors.affiliation: National Marine Mammal Laboratory, Alaska Fisheries Science Center, National Oceanic and Atmospheric Administration, 7600, Sand Point Way NE, Seattle, WA 98115, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Robyn P
authors.initials: RP
authors.lastname: Angliss
authors.affiliation: Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 570, 3900, Nuuk, Greenland.
authors.forename: Erik W
authors.initials: EW
authors.lastname: Born
authors.affiliation: ChukotTINRO, P.O. Box 29, Str. Otke, 56, Anadyr, Chukotka, 689000, Russia.
authors.forename: Dennis
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Litovka
authors.affiliation: Alaska Department of Fish and Game, 1300 College Road, Fairbanks, AK, 99701, U.S.A.
authors.forename: Lori
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Quakenbush
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, N-9296, Tromsø, Norway.
authors.forename: Christian
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Lydersen
authors.affiliation: Norwegian Polar Institute, Fram Centre, N-9296, Tromsø, Norway.
authors.forename: Dag
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Vongraven
authors.affiliation: Greenland Institute of Natural Resources, P.O. Box 570, 3900, Nuuk, Greenland.
authors.forename: Fernando
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Ugarte
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001110:Arctic Regions; D010872:Caniformia / Q000502:physiology*; D002591:Cetacea / Q000502:physiology*; D057231:Climate Change; D003247:Conservation of Natural Resources; D017753:Ecosystem; D046448:Ice Cover; D011156:Population Density
keywords: cambio climático; caza para la subsistencia; circumpolar assessment; climate change; evaluación circumpolar; management; manejo; subsistence harvest