title: Tramadol hydrochloride: pharmacokinetics, pharmacodynamics, adverse side effects, co-administration of drugs and new drug delivery systems.
abstract: Tramadol hydrochloride (TrHC) is a synthetic analgesic drug exhibiting opioid and non-opioid properties, acting mainly on the central nervous system. It has been mostly used to treat pain, although its use to treat anxiety and depression has also been documented. These properties arise from the fact that they inhibit serotonin (5-HT) reuptake augmenting 5-HT concentration on the synaptic cleft. Despite this, TrHC has also been described to have several side effects which are mainly due to its fast metabolization and excretion which in turn requires multiple doses per day. To surpass this limitation, new pharmaceutical formulations are being developed intending the protection, target and sustained delivery as well as a reduction on daily dose aiming a reduction on the side effects. In the present work we have revised the efficacy, safety, biological and adverse effects of TrHC, and the added value of developing a novel drug delivery system for topical administration.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Fernando Stagno d' Alcontres, 31, 98166 S. Agata-Messina, Italy.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Vazzana
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology and Environment, University of Trás-os Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, P-5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal; Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB, UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal.
authors.forename: T
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Andreani
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC), Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Fangueiro
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences, University of Messina, Viale Fernando Stagno d' Alcontres, 31, 98166 S. Agata-Messina, Italy.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Faggio
authors.affiliation: Center for Nanotechnology and Smart Materials, Rua Fernando Mesquita, 2785, 4760-034 Vila Nova de Famalicão, Portugal.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Silva
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmacy, University of Napoli "Federico II", Via D. Montesano 49, 80131 Napoli, Italy.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Santini
authors.affiliation: Department of Physical Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain; Institute of Nanoscience and Nanotechnology, University of Barcelona, Av. Joan XXIII s/n, 08028 Barcelona, Spain.
authors.forename: M L
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Garcia
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology and Environment, University of Trás-os Montes e Alto Douro, Quinta de Prados, P-5001-801, Vila Real, Portugal; Centre for Research and Technology of Agro-Environmental and Biological Sciences (CITAB, UTAD), Vila Real, Portugal.
authors.forename: A M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Silva
authors.affiliation: Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Coimbra (FFUC), Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal; Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology & Institute for Biomedical Imaging and Life Sciences (CNC-IBILI), University of Coimbra, Pólo das Ciências da Saúde, Azinhaga de Santa Comba, 3000-548 Coimbra, Portugal. Electronic address: ebsouto@ff.uc.pt.
authors.forename: E B
authors.initials: EB
authors.lastname: Souto
mesh_terms: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000493:pharmacokinetics; D000818:Animals; D002626:Chemistry, Pharmaceutical / Q000379:methods; D004244:Dizziness / Q000139:chemically induced / Q000378:metabolism; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems / Q000639:trends*; D006801:Humans; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000378:metabolism*; D014147:Tramadol / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000493:pharmacokinetics*
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations; D014147:Tramadol
keywords: Drug delivery; Pain relief; Polyacrylates; Solid lipid nanoparticles; Tramadol hydrochloride