title: Cross-national trends in perceived school pressure by gender and age from 1994 to 2010.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Pressure within school can be a critical component in understanding how the school experience influences young people's intellectual development, physical and mental health and future educational decisions.
  
  
  METHODS
  Data from five survey rounds (1993/1994, 1997/1998, 2001/2002, 2005/2006 and 2009/2010) were used to examine time-, age- and gender-related trends in the amounts of reported school pressure among 11-, 13- and 15-year-olds, in five different regions (North America, Great Britain, Eastern Europe, Nordic and Germanic countries).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Across the regions the reported perceptions of school pressure did not change between 1994 and 2010, despite a temporary increase in 2002 and 2006. With the exception of children at 11 years of age, girls reported higher levels of school pressure than boys (Cohen's d from 0.12 to 0.58) and school pressure was higher in older age groups. These findings were consistent across countries. Regionally, children in North America reported the highest levels of school pressure, and students in the Germanic countries the lowest.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Factors associated with child development and differences in societal expectations and structures, along with the possible, albeit, differential impact of the Programme for International Student Assessment (PISA), may partially explain the differences and trends found in school pressure. School pressure increases alongside the onset of adolescence and the shift from elementary school to the higher demanding expectations of secondary education. Time-related increases in school pressure occurred in the years following the release of the PISA results, and were larger in those regions in which results were less positive.
authors: 1 Faculty of Education, Queen's University, Kingston Ontario, Canada klingerd@queensu.ca.
authors: Don A
authors: DA
authors: Klinger
authors: 1 Faculty of Education, Queen's University, Kingston Ontario, Canada.
authors: John G
authors: JG
authors: Freeman
authors: 2 Department of Social and Health Sciences, Magdeburg-Stendal University of Applied Sciences, Stendal, Germany.
authors: Ludwig
authors: L
authors: Bilz
authors: 3 Department of Surveillance and Evaluation, National Institute for Health Development, Tallinn, Estonia.
authors: Krystine
authors: K
authors: Liiv
authors: 4 Ludwig Boltzmann Institute Health Promotion Research, Vienna, Austria.
authors: Daniela
authors: D
authors: Ramelow
authors: 1 Faculty of Education, Queen's University, Kingston Ontario, Canada.
authors: Stefanie S
authors: SS
authors: Sebok
authors: 5 Department of Health Promotion and Development, University of Bergen, Bergen, Norway.
authors: Oddrun
authors: O
authors: Samdal
authors: 4 Ludwig Boltzmann Institute Health Promotion Research, Vienna, Austria.
authors: Wolfgang
authors: W
authors: Dür
authors: 6 National Institute of Public Health, University of Southern Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.
authors: Mette
authors: M
authors: Rasmussen
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000294:Adolescent Behavior; D002648:Child; D005060:Europe / Q000453:epidemiology; D005260:Female; D006306:Health Surveys; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D009656:North America / Q000453:epidemiology; D000297:Psychology, Adolescent; D012574:Schools; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000523:psychology*