title: Adaptations of the Shoulder to Overhead Throwing in Youth Athletes.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The high number of repetitions and high forces associated with overhead throwing lead to anatomical adaptations, such as humeral retrotorsion and posterior-capsule thickness, in elite and professional baseball athletes. However, little is known about the origin and progression of these changes that may account for the increasing trend of chronic shoulder injuries in youth baseball and precipitate subsequent pathologic conditions throughout a young athlete's lifetime.
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  To investigate the relationship of age and upper extremity dominance on humeral retrotorsion, posterior-capsule thickness, and glenohumeral range of motion.
  
  
  METHODS
  Cross-sectional study.
  
  
  METHODS
  Research laboratory, local baseball fields, and training facilities.
  
  
  METHODS
  Thirty-six boys (mean age = 10.94 ± 1.34 years, height = 151.31 ± 12.17 cm, mass = 42.51 ± 10.32 kg) ranging in age from 8 to 12 years and involved in organized youth baseball.
  
  
  METHODS
  Diagnostic ultrasound was used to determine humeral retrotorsion and posterior-capsule thickness. Glenohumeral internal rotation and external rotation were measured using a handheld inclinometer. We used 2 × 2 mixed-model analyses of variance to compare the influence of limb dominance and age on the dependent variables of humeral retrotorsion, posterior-capsule thickness, internal rotation, and external rotation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The dominant shoulders of youth throwers exhibited less glenohumeral internal rotation but greater humeral retrotorsion, posterior-capsule thickness, and glenohumeral external rotation than the nondominant shoulders. Dominant internal rotation was greater in the 8- to 10-year-old group than in the 11- to 12-year-old group, and results trended toward a difference (F1,33 = 4.12, P = .05). Correlations existed between humeral retrotorsion and range of motion (P < .05).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The structural adaptations in the dominant shoulders of younger baseball players were similar to adaptations observed in older baseball athletes, indicating that more examination is needed in younger athletes. We are the first to demonstrate greater posterior-capsule thickness in the dominant shoulders of youth baseball athletes.
authors: Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark.
authors: Matthew Michael
authors: MM
authors: Astolfi
authors: Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark.
authors: Aaron H
authors: AH
authors: Struminger
authors: Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark.
authors: Todd D
authors: TD
authors: Royer
authors: Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark.
authors: Thomas W
authors: TW
authors: Kaminski
authors: Department of Kinesiology and Applied Physiology, University of Delaware, Newark.
authors: Charles B
authors: CB
authors: Swanik
mesh_terms: D000222:Adaptation, Physiological / Q000502:physiology*; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D056352:Athletes; D001484:Baseball / Q000502:physiology*; D002648:Child; D003430:Cross-Sectional Studies; D007839:Functional Laterality / Q000502:physiology; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D016059:Range of Motion, Articular / Q000502:physiology; D012399:Rotation; D012785:Shoulder Joint / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging / Q000502:physiology*; D014463:Ultrasonography
keywords: baseball; diagnostic ultrasound; glenohumeral range of motion; humeral retrotorsion; posterior-capsule thickness