title: Long-term decline of the Amazon carbon sink.
abstract: Atmospheric carbon dioxide records indicate that the land surface has acted as a strong global carbon sink over recent decades, with a substantial fraction of this sink probably located in the tropics, particularly in the Amazon. Nevertheless, it is unclear how the terrestrial carbon sink will evolve as climate and atmospheric composition continue to change. Here we analyse the historical evolution of the biomass dynamics of the Amazon rainforest over three decades using a distributed network of 321 plots. While this analysis confirms that Amazon forests have acted as a long-term net biomass sink, we find a long-term decreasing trend of carbon accumulation. Rates of net increase in above-ground biomass declined by one-third during the past decade compared to the 1990s. This is a consequence of growth rate increases levelling off recently, while biomass mortality persistently increased throughout, leading to a shortening of carbon residence times. Potential drivers for the mortality increase include greater climate variability, and feedbacks of faster growth on mortality, resulting in shortened tree longevity. The observed decline of the Amazon sink diverges markedly from the recent increase in terrestrial carbon uptake at the global scale, and is contrary to expectations based on models.
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
authors: R J W
authors: RJ
authors: Brienen
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
authors: O L
authors: OL
authors: Phillips
authors: 1] School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK. [2] Geography, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Rennes Drive, Exeter EX4 4RJ, UK.
authors: T R
authors: TR
authors: Feldpausch
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
authors: E
authors: E
authors: Gloor
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
authors: T R
authors: TR
authors: Baker
authors: 1] Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, Silwood Park Campus, Buckhurst Road, Ascot, Berkshire SL5 7PY, UK. [2] School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Cairns, 4870 Queenland, Australia.
authors: J
authors: J
authors: Lloyd
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
authors: G
authors: G
authors: Lopez-Gonzalez
authors: Jardín Botánico de Missouri, Prolongacion Bolognesi Mz.e, Lote 6, Oxapampa, Pasco, Peru.
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Monteagudo-Mendoza
authors: Environmental Change Institute, School of Geography and the Environment, University of Oxford, Oxford OX1 3QK, UK.
authors: Y
authors: Y
authors: Malhi
authors: 1] School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK. [2] Department of Geography, University College London, Pearson Building, Gower Street, London WC1E 6BT, UK.
authors: S L
authors: SL
authors: Lewis
authors: Jardín Botánico de Missouri, Prolongacion Bolognesi Mz.e, Lote 6, Oxapampa, Pasco, Peru.
authors: R
authors: R
authors: Vásquez Martinez
authors: School of Anthropology and Conservation, Marlowe Building, University of Kent, Canterbury CT1 3EH, UK.
authors: M
authors: M
authors: Alexiades
authors: Servicios Ecosistemicos y Cambio Climático, Jardín Botánico de Medellín, Calle 73 no. 51 D-14, C.P. 050010, Medellín, Colombia.
authors: E
authors: E
authors: Álvarez Dávila
authors: Center for Tropical Conservation, Duke University, Box 90381, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.
authors: P
authors: P
authors: Alvarez-Loayza
authors: Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragment Project (INPA &STRI), C.P. 478, Manaus AM 69011-970, Brazil.
authors: A
authors: A
authors: Andrade
authors: 1] Geography, College of Life and Environmental Sciences, University of Exeter, Rennes Drive, Exeter EX4 4RJ, UK. [2] National Institute for Space Research (INPE), Av. Dos Astronautas, 1758, São José dos Campos, São Paulo 12227-010, Brazil.
authors: L E O C
authors: LE
authors: Aragão
authors: Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Casilla 2489, Av. Irala 565, Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
authors: A
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authors: Araujo-Murakami
authors: Alterra, Wageningen University and Research Centre, PO Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: E J M M
authors: EJ
authors: Arets
authors: Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Casilla 2489, Av. Irala 565, Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
authors: L
authors: L
authors: Arroyo
authors: UNELLEZ-Guanare, Programa de Ciencias del Agro y el Mar, Herbario Universitario (PORT), Mesa de Cavacas, Estado Portuguesa, 3350 Venezuela.
authors: G A
authors: GA
authors: Aymard C
authors: Biodiversiteit en Ecosysteem Dynamica, University of Amsterdam, Postbus 94248, 1090 GE Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors: O S
authors: OS
authors: Bánki
authors: 1] Institut National de la Recherche Agronomique, UMR EcoFoG, Campus Agronomique, 97310 Kourou, French Guiana. [2] International Center for Tropical Botany, Department of Biological Sciences, Florida International University, Miami, Florida 33199, USA.
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authors: C
authors: Baraloto
authors: Universidade Federal do Acre, Campus de Cruzeiro do Sul, Rio Branco, Brazil.
authors: J
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authors: Barroso
authors: INRA, UMR 1137 ''Ecologie et Ecophysiologie Forestiere'' 54280 Champenoux, France.
authors: D
authors: D
authors: Bonal
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Boot
authors: Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragment Project (INPA &STRI), C.P. 478, Manaus AM 69011-970, Brazil.
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authors: Embrapa Roraima, Caixa Postal 133, Boa Vista, RR, CEP 69301-970, Brazil.
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authors: Castilho
authors: Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco, Av. de la Cultura N° 733, Cusco, Peru.
authors: V
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authors: Chama
authors: 1] School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK. [2] International Master Program of Agriculture, College of Agriculture and Natural Resources, National Chung Hsing University, Taichung 40227, Taiwan.
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authors: Université Paul Sabatier CNRS, UMR 5174 Evolution et Diversité Biologique, Bâtiment 4R1, 31062 Toulouse, France.
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authors: Northeast Region Inventory and Monitoring Program, National Park Service, 120 Chatham Lane, Fredericksburg, Virginia 22405, USA.
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authors: Andes to Amazon Biodiversity Program, Puerto Maldonado, Madre de Dios, Peru.
authors: F
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authors: Cornejo Valverde
authors: Universidade Federal do Para, Centro de Geociencias, Belem, CEP 66017-970 Para, Brazil.
authors: L
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authors: da Costa
authors: Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Campus de Nova Xavantina, Caixa Postal 08, CEP 78.690-000, Nova Xavantina MT, Brazil.
authors: E A
authors: EA
authors: de Oliveira
authors: Department of Anthropology, University of Texas at Austin, SAC Room 5.150, 2201 Speedway Stop C3200, Austin, Texas 78712, USA.
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authors: Di Fiore
authors: Department of Entomology, Smithsonian Institution, PO Box 37012, MRC 187, Washington DC 20013-7012, USA.
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authors: Erwin
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Forsthofer
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Grahame
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Cirad, UMR Ecologie des Forêts de Guyane, Campus Agronomique, 97310 Kourou, French Guiana.
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authors: Biological Dynamics of Forest Fragment Project (INPA &STRI), C.P. 478, Manaus AM 69011-970, Brazil.
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authors: 1] School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK. [2] Instituto de Investigaciones de la Amazonía Peruana, Av. A. José Quiñones km 2.5, Iquitos, Peru.
authors: E N
authors: EN
authors: Honorio Coronado
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Keeling
authors: World Wildlife Fund, 1250 24th Street NW, Washington DC 20037, USA.
authors: T J
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authors: Killeen
authors: Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) and School of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4878, Australia.
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authors: Laurance
authors: Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) and School of Marine and Environmental Sciences, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4878, Australia.
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authors: Laurance
authors: Instituto Boliviano de Investigación Forestal, C.P. 6201, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia.
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authors: Licona
authors: National Institute for Research in Amazonia (INPA), C.P. 478, Manaus, Amazonas, CEP 69011-970, Brazil.
authors: W E
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authors: Magnussen
authors: Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Campus de Nova Xavantina, Caixa Postal 08, CEP 78.690-000, Nova Xavantina MT, Brazil.
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authors: Marimon
authors: Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Campus de Nova Xavantina, Caixa Postal 08, CEP 78.690-000, Nova Xavantina MT, Brazil.
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authors: Marimon-Junior
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authors: C
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authors: Universidad Estatal Amazónica, Facultad de Ingeniería Ambiental, Paso lateral km 2 1/2 via Napo, Puyo, Pastaza, Ecuador.
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authors: National Institute for Research in Amazonia (INPA), C.P. 2223, 69080-971, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil.
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authors: Universidad Nacional San Antonio Abad del Cusco, Av. de la Cultura N° 733, Cusco, Peru.
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authors: Museo de Historia Natural Noel Kempff Mercado, Universidad Autonoma Gabriel Rene Moreno, Casilla 2489, Av. Irala 565, Santa Cruz, Bolivia.
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authors: Universidad Autonoma del Beni, Campus Universitario, Av. Ejército Nacional, Riberalta, Beni, Bolivia.
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authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Peacock
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authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: National Institute for Research in Amazonia (INPA), C.P. 2223, 69080-971, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil.
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authors: Universidad Nacional de la Amazonía Peruana, Iquitos, Loreto, Peru.
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authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Av. Magalhães Barata, 376 - São Braz, CEP 66040-170, Belém PA, Brazil.
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authors: Salomão
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: UFRA, Av. Presidente Tancredo Neves 2501, CEP 66.077-901, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
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authors: Museu Universitário, Universidade Federal do Acre, Rio Branco AC 69910-900, Brazil.
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authors: European Commission - DG Joint Research Centre, Institute for Environment and Sustainability, Via Enrico Fermi 274, 21010 Ispra, Italy.
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authors: Stropp
authors: School of Geography, University of Leeds, Leeds LS2 9JT, UK.
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authors: Talbot
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authors: ter Steege
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authors: Teran-Aguilar
authors: Center for Tropical Conservation, Duke University, Box 90381, Durham, North Carolina 27708, USA.
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authors: Terborgh
authors: UFRA, Av. Presidente Tancredo Neves 2501, CEP 66.077-901, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
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authors: Thomas-Caesar
authors: Instituto Boliviano de Investigación Forestal, C.P. 6201, Santa Cruz de la Sierra, Bolivia.
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authors: Toledo
authors: 1] School of Earth and Environmental Science, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia. [2] Centre for Tropical Environmental and Sustainability Science (TESS) and School of Marine and Tropical Biology, James Cook University, Cairns, Queensland 4878, Australia.
authors: M
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authors: Torello-Raventos
authors: Universidade do Estado de Mato Grosso, Campus de Nova Xavantina, Caixa Postal 08, CEP 78.690-000, Nova Xavantina MT, Brazil.
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authors: RK
authors: Umetsu
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authors: van der Heijden
authors: Van der Hout Forestry Consulting, Jan Trooststraat 6, 3078 HP Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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authors: van der Hout
authors: Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Av. Magalhães Barata, 376 - São Braz, CEP 66040-170, Belém PA, Brazil.
authors: I C
authors: IC
authors: Guimarães Vieira
authors: Universidade Estadual de Campinas, NEPAM, Rua dos Flamboyants, 155- Cidade Universitária Zeferino Vaz, Campinas, CEP 13083-867, Sao Paulo, Brazil.
authors: S A
authors: SA
authors: Vieira
authors: Instituto de Investigaciones para el Desarrollo Forestal (INDEFOR), Universidad de Los Andes, Facultad de Ciencias Forestales y Ambientales, Conjunto Forestal, C.P. 5101, Mérida, Venezuela.
authors: E
authors: E
authors: Vilanova
authors: 1] Universidad Autonoma del Beni, Campus Universitario, Av. Ejército Nacional, Riberalta, Beni, Bolivia. [2] Centro de Investigación y Promoción del Campesinado, regional Norte Amazónico, C/ Nicanor Gonzalo Salvatierra N° 362, Casilla 16, Riberalta, Bolivia.
authors: V A
authors: VA
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authors: Tropenbos International, PO Box 232, 6700 AE Wageningen, The Netherlands.
authors: R J
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authors: Zagt
mesh_terms: D001272:Atmosphere / Q000737:chemistry; D018533:Biomass; D001938:Brazil; D002244:Carbon / Q000032:analysis / Q000378:metabolism; D002245:Carbon Dioxide / Q000032:analysis* / Q000378:metabolism; D057965:Carbon Sequestration; D018547:Plant Stems / Q000378:metabolism; D065947:Rainforest; D014197:Trees / Q000254:growth & development / Q000378:metabolism; D014329:Tropical Climate; D014934:Wood / Q000032:analysis
chemical_list: D002245:Carbon Dioxide; D002244:Carbon