title: Associations between maternal prenatal cortisol concentrations and child outcomes: A systematic review.
abstract: A frequently proposed mechanism underlying the link between maternal prenatal stress/anxiety and child outcomes is heightened concentrations of maternal cortisol. In this systematic review, empirical findings on associations between maternal prenatal cortisol concentrations and child outcomes (physical/health, cognitive/motor, psychological/behavioral, and cortisol) are summarized. The number of empirical studies that find significant associations between maternal prenatal cortisol and child outcomes is small, but the majority of the studies that do find associations show that maternal cortisol is related to altered child outcomes (e.g. more physical/health problems, lower cognitive/motor development, more psychological/behavioral problems, and higher child cortisol concentrations). Inspection of the studies reveals possible critical gestational periods for maternal cortisol to affect different child outcomes. The heterogeneity in study designs and cortisol assessment methods makes drawing strong conclusions premature. However, the fact that most studies did not find significant associations suggests that maternal cortisol may not to be the sole or even main underlying mechanism in the relation between maternal prenatal stress/anxiety and child outcomes. Limitations of the reviewed studies are discussed, and directions for future research and reporting strategies are provided.
authors: Department of Developmental Psychology, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Postbus 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands. Electronic address: m.zijlmans@psych.ru.nl.
authors: Maartje A C
authors: MA
authors: Zijlmans
authors: Department of Developmental Psychology, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Postbus 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors: J Marianne
authors: JM
authors: Riksen-Walraven
authors: Department of Developmental Psychology, Behavioural Science Institute, Radboud University Nijmegen, Postbus 9104, 6500 HE Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors: Carolina
authors: C
authors: de Weerth
mesh_terms: D001007:Anxiety / Q000097:blood / Q000150:complications / Q000378:metabolism; D002657:Child Development; D002675:Child, Preschool; D005260:Female; D005865:Gestational Age; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000097:blood* / Q000378:metabolism*; D007223:Infant; D007231:Infant, Newborn; D008297:Male; D011247:Pregnancy; D011248:Pregnancy Complications / Q000097:blood / Q000378:metabolism*; D011256:Pregnancy Outcome; D011297:Prenatal Exposure Delayed Effects / Q000097:blood / Q000378:metabolism*; D013315:Stress, Psychological / Q000097:blood / Q000150:complications / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D006854:Hydrocortisone
keywords: Anxiety; Birth; Child; Cortisol; Infant; Maternal; Outcome; Prenatal; Stress