title: Prevalence and effects of mycotoxins on poultry health and performance, and recent development in mycotoxin counteracting strategies.
abstract: Extensive research over the last couple of decades has made it obvious that mycotoxins are commonly prevalent in majority of feed ingredients. A worldwide mycotoxin survey in 2013 revealed 81% of around 3,000 grain and feed samples analyzed had at least 1 mycotoxin, which was higher than the 10-year average (from 2004 to 2013) of 76% in a total of 25,944 samples. The considerable increase in the number of positive samples in 2013 may be due to the improvements in detection methods and their sensitivity. The recently developed liquid chromatography coupled to (tandem) mass spectrometry allows the inclusion of a high number of analytes and is the most selective, sensitive, and accurate of all the mycotoxin analytical methods. Mycotoxins can affect the animals either individually or additively in the presence of more than 1 mycotoxin, and may affect various organs such as gastrointestinal tract, liver, and immune system, essentially resulting in reduced productivity of the birds and mortality in extreme cases. While the use of mycotoxin binding agents has been a commonly used counteracting strategy, considering the great diversity in the chemical structures of mycotoxins, it is very obvious that there is no single method that can be used to deactivate mycotoxins in feed. Therefore, different strategies have to be combined in order to specifically target individual mycotoxins without impacting the quality of feed. Enzymatic or microbial detoxification, referred to as "biotransformation" or "biodetoxification," utilizes microorganisms or purified enzymes thereof to catabolize the entire mycotoxin or transform or cleave it to less or non-toxic compounds. However, the awareness on the prevalence of mycotoxins, available modern techniques to analyze them, the effects of mycotoxicoses, and the recent developments in the ways to safely eliminate the mycotoxins from the feed are very minimal among the producers. This symposium review paper comprehensively discusses the above mentioned aspects.
authors.affiliation: BIOMIN America Inc, San Antonio, TX, USA gr.murugesan@gmail.com.
authors.forename: G R
authors.initials: GR
authors.lastname: Murugesan
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Sciences, University of Missouri-Columbia, MO, USA.
authors.forename: D R
authors.initials: DR
authors.lastname: Ledoux
authors.affiliation: BIOMIN Research Center, Tulln, Austria.
authors.forename: K
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Naehrer
authors.affiliation: Christian Doppler Laboratory for Mycotoxin Metabolism, University of Natural Resources and Life Sciences Vienna (BOKU), Tulln, Austria.
authors.forename: F
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Berthiller
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University West Lafayette, IN, USA.
authors.forename: T J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Applegate
authors.affiliation: Department of Animal Sciences, Purdue University West Lafayette, IN, USA.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Grenier
authors.affiliation: Texas A&M University, College Station, TX, USA.
authors.forename: T D
authors.initials: TD
authors.lastname: Phillips
authors.affiliation: BIOMIN Research Center, Tulln, Austria.
authors.forename: G
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Schatzmayr
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005506:Food Contamination / Q000032:analysis; D015651:Mycotoxicosis / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000382:microbiology / Q000517:prevention & control / Q000662:veterinary*; D009183:Mycotoxins / Q000633:toxicity*; D011200:Poultry; D011201:Poultry Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000382:microbiology / Q000517:prevention & control*; D015995:Prevalence
chemical_list: D009183:Mycotoxins
keywords: analysis; detoxification; gut; immune function; mycotoxicosis; occurrence
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1993 Mar;72(3):456-66
references.pmid: 8464788
references.citation: Nat Toxins. 1995;3(4):204-13; discussion 221
references.pmid: 7582618
references.citation: J Vet Diagn Invest. 1992 Jul;4(3):330-3
references.pmid: 1515495
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013 Jul 26;8(7):e69014
references.pmid: 23922676
references.citation: Avian Dis. 1995 Oct-Dec;39(4):879-86
references.pmid: 8719224
references.citation: Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2008 Feb;25(2):134-45
references.pmid: 18286403
references.citation: Toxicol Sci. 1998 Feb;41(2):175-82
references.pmid: 9520353
references.citation: Br Poult Sci. 2003 Mar;44(1):113-26
references.pmid: 12737233
references.citation: Anal Bioanal Chem. 2012 Mar;402(9):2675-86
references.pmid: 22293971
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2007 Feb;86(2):291-8
references.pmid: 17234842
references.citation: Biochem Pharmacol. 2012 May 15;83(10):1465-73
references.pmid: 22366513
references.citation: Mol Nutr Food Res. 2007 Aug;51(8):925-31
references.pmid: 17642075
references.citation: Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2012;29(2):217-31
references.pmid: 22145855
references.citation: Avian Dis. 1995 Jan-Mar;39(1):32-8
references.pmid: 7794188
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1988 Feb;67(2):243-7
references.pmid: 2837754
references.citation: J Agric Food Chem. 2010 Jul 14;58(13):7510-9
references.pmid: 20527950
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 2004 Feb;157(2):233-41
references.pmid: 15119861
references.citation: J Appl Toxicol. 2014 Jul;34(7):795-804
references.pmid: 24193864
references.citation: Br J Nutr. 2012 Jun;107(12):1776-86
references.pmid: 21936967
references.citation: Appl Microbiol Biotechnol. 2011 Aug;91(3):491-504
references.pmid: 21691789
references.citation: J Sci Food Agric. 2013 Sep;93(12):2892-9
references.pmid: 23670211
references.citation: Toxins (Basel). 2013 Apr 29;5(5):912-25
references.pmid: 23628787
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1989 Dec;68(12):1658-63
references.pmid: 2622820
references.citation: Int J Mol Sci. 2011;12(11):7996-8012
references.pmid: 22174646
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2009 Feb;88(2):360-71
references.pmid: 19151351
references.citation: J Agric Food Chem. 1998 Feb 16;46(2):599-605
references.pmid: 10554284
references.citation: Colloids Surf B Biointerfaces. 2008 Oct 1;66(1):20-5
references.pmid: 18585010
references.citation: Toxins (Basel). 2013 Feb 21;5(2):396-430
references.pmid: 23430606
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1982 Sep;61(9):1832-41
references.pmid: 7134137
references.citation: J Anim Physiol Anim Nutr (Berl). 2008 Jun;92(3):225-30
references.pmid: 18477301
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2007 Jan;86(1):15-20
references.pmid: 17179409
references.citation: Chem Biol Interact. 2006 Jan 5;159(1):18-46
references.pmid: 16293235
references.citation: Toxins (Basel). 2012 Sep;4(9):663-75
references.pmid: 23105974
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1987 Apr;66(4):640-4
references.pmid: 3615325
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 2006 May;83(5):1199-203
references.pmid: 16685066
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1992 Jan;71(1):64-9
references.pmid: 1311450
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2005 Jun;84(6):928-32
references.pmid: 15971532
references.citation: J Agric Food Chem. 2007 Jun 13;55(12):4810-9
references.pmid: 17511466
references.citation: Mol Nutr Food Res. 2013 Jan;57(1):165-86
references.pmid: 23047235
references.citation: Toxicol Sci. 2012 Nov;130(1):180-90
references.pmid: 22859312
references.citation: Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 2006;20(18):2649-59
references.pmid: 16912987
references.citation: Toxicol Sci. 1999 Dec;52(2 Suppl):118-26
references.pmid: 10630600
references.citation: Vet Immunol Immunopathol. 2010 Dec 1;138(3):218-23
references.pmid: 20800290
references.citation: Appl Microbiol. 1966 Nov;14(6):934-9
references.pmid: 16349699
references.citation: New Orleans Med Surg J. 1950 Aug;103(2):81-7
references.pmid: 15439563
references.citation: Toxicol Lett. 2014 Aug 17;229(1):190-7
references.pmid: 24968060
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1996 Dec;75(12):1472-8
references.pmid: 9000269
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1988 Jul;54(7):1806-11
references.pmid: 2901247
references.citation: Toxicol Appl Pharmacol. 1993 Jan;118(1):105-12
references.pmid: 8430417
references.citation: Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2012;29(5):809-18
references.pmid: 22324939
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1986 Jul;65(7):1291-8
references.pmid: 3748945
references.citation: Vet Res Commun. 2005 Aug;29 Suppl 2:225-7
references.pmid: 16244961
references.citation: J Biotechnol. 2010 Jan 15;145(2):120-9
references.pmid: 19922747
references.citation: Syst Appl Microbiol. 2004 Nov;27(6):661-71
references.pmid: 15612623
references.citation: Int J Parasitol. 1992 Jul;22(4):523-5
references.pmid: 1644528
references.citation: Mycopathologia. 1992 Feb;117(1-2):23-8
references.pmid: 1513370
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1982 Aug;61(8):1646-52
references.pmid: 7134118
references.citation: Food Addit Contam Part B Surveill. 2011;4(3):168-79
references.pmid: 24786003
references.citation: Br Poult Sci. 2000 Dec;41(5):640-50
references.pmid: 11201446
references.citation: Mycotoxin Res. 2007 Mar;23(1):27-33
references.pmid: 23605813
references.citation: J Oral Maxillofac Surg. 1992 Jun;50(6):633-5
references.pmid: 1593328
references.citation: Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2009 May;26(5):733-43
references.pmid: 19680945
references.citation: Mol Nutr Food Res. 2006 May;50(6):543-51
references.pmid: 16715543
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1982 Sep;61(9):1828-31
references.pmid: 6215643
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2008 Apr;87(4):727-32
references.pmid: 18339995
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1988 Aug;67(8):1139-46
references.pmid: 2905799
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 1992 Dec;58(12):3928-31
references.pmid: 16348822
references.citation: J Anim Sci. 1992 Dec;70(12):3968-88
references.pmid: 1474034
references.citation: Toxins (Basel). 2013 Mar 08;5(3):504-23
references.pmid: 23529186
references.citation: Avian Dis. 2010 Mar;54(1):67-73
references.pmid: 20408401
references.citation: Food Addit Contam. 2006 Jan;23(1):50-61
references.pmid: 16393815
references.citation: Avian Dis. 1992 Apr-Jun;36(2):450-4
references.pmid: 1627116
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1991 Aug 5;266(22):14486-90
references.pmid: 1860857
references.citation: Toxins (Basel). 2014 Jan 28;6(2):430-52
references.pmid: 24476707
references.citation: Nature. 1999 Jul 8;400(6740):120-1
references.pmid: 10408435
references.citation: Am J Clin Nutr. 1991 Feb;53(2):448-56
references.pmid: 1989412
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2004 Dec;83(12):1964-72
references.pmid: 15615008
references.citation: Crit Rev Food Sci Nutr. 2008 Jan;48(1):21-49
references.pmid: 18274964
references.citation: Anal Bioanal Chem. 2013 Jun;405(15):5087-104
references.pmid: 23471368
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1989 Sep;68(9):1205-12
references.pmid: 2813246
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1981 Mar;60(3):550-5
references.pmid: 7301724
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2011 Jan;90(1):48-58
references.pmid: 21177443
references.citation: Food Chem Toxicol. 2008 Mar;46(3):813-41
references.pmid: 18226851
references.citation: J Chromatogr A. 2014 Oct 3;1362:145-56
references.pmid: 25175039
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2005 Jan;84(1):22-8
references.pmid: 15685938
references.citation: Food Chem Toxicol. 2013 Jan;51:350-5
references.pmid: 23099502
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2002 Nov;81(11):1671-80
references.pmid: 12455595
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2009 Dec;88(12):2620-7
references.pmid: 19903961
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2009 Jun;88(6):1235-41
references.pmid: 19439635
references.citation: Res Vet Sci. 2007 Apr;82(2):225-31
references.pmid: 16997337
references.citation: Mol Nutr Food Res. 2011 May;55(5):761-71
references.pmid: 21259430
references.citation: Food Addit Contam. 1999 Apr;16(4):159-71
references.pmid: 10560569
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1993 Apr;72(4):651-7
references.pmid: 8386839
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1988 Feb;67(2):253-60
references.pmid: 3380771
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1988 Oct;67(10):1418-23
references.pmid: 3194334
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1987 Feb;66(2):318-24
references.pmid: 3588499
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2011 Dec;90(12):2766-74
references.pmid: 22080015
references.citation: Can J Physiol Pharmacol. 1990 Jul;68(7):987-90
references.pmid: 2200592
references.citation: Food Addit Contam. 2002 Apr;19(4):379-86
references.pmid: 11962696
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1989 May;68(5):622-6
references.pmid: 2755890
references.citation: Toxins (Basel). 2011 Jun;3(6):566-90
references.pmid: 22069726
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2010 Apr;76(7):2353-9
references.pmid: 20118365
references.citation: Br Poult Sci. 2005 Feb;46(1):58-65
references.pmid: 15835253
references.citation: J Chem Ecol. 2013 Jul;39(7):907-18
references.pmid: 23846184
references.citation: Toxicol Lett. 2012 Sep 18;213(3):367-73
references.pmid: 22884771
references.citation: Poult Sci. 2002 Jan;81(1):56-61
references.pmid: 11885900
references.citation: Mycotoxin Res. 2003 Jun;19(2):124-8
references.pmid: 23604763
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1981 Aug;60(8):1818-21
references.pmid: 6172784
references.citation: Rapid Commun Mass Spectrom. 2012 Jul 15;26(13):1533-40
references.pmid: 22638970
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1975 Jul;54(4):1308-10
references.pmid: 1161720
references.citation: J Anim Sci. 2005 Aug;83(8):1939-47
references.pmid: 16024715
references.citation: Animal. 2012 Jun;6(6):952-61
references.pmid: 22558966
references.citation: Food Addit Contam Part A Chem Anal Control Expo Risk Assess. 2013;30(1):137-46
references.pmid: 23025486
references.citation: Exp Biol Med (Maywood). 2008 Nov;233(11):1411-20
references.pmid: 18824722
references.citation: Animal. 2012 Feb;6(2):278-91
references.pmid: 22436186
references.citation: J Toxicol Environ Health. 1993 Mar;38(3):309-28
references.pmid: 8450559
references.citation: J Agric Food Chem. 2013 Jul 10;61(27):6711-9
references.pmid: 23758213
references.citation: Poult Sci. 1988 Jul;67(7):1034-42
references.pmid: 3222190
references.citation: Adv Exp Med Biol. 2002;504:157-71
references.pmid: 11922083