title: Biomaterials for Bone Regenerative Engineering.
abstract: Strategies for bone tissue regeneration have been continuously evolving for the last 25 years since the introduction of the "tissue engineering" concept. The convergence of the life, physical, and engineering sciences has brought in several advanced technologies available to tissue engineers and scientists. This resulted in the creation of a new multidisciplinary field termed as "regenerative engineering". In this article, the role of biomaterials in bone regenerative engineering is systematically reviewed to elucidate the new design criteria for the next generation of biomaterials for bone regenerative engineering. The exemplary design of biomaterials harnessing various materials characteristics towards successful bone defect repair and regeneration is highlighted. Particular attention is given to the attempts of incorporating advanced materials science, stem cell technologies, and developmental biology into biomaterials design to engineer and develop the next generation bone grafts.
authors.affiliation: Institute for Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|The Raymond and Beverly Sackler Center for Biomedical Biological, Physical and Engineering Sciences, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.
authors.forename: Xiaohua
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Yu
authors.affiliation: Institute for Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06268, USA.
authors.forename: Xiaoyan
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Tang
authors.affiliation: Institute for Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06268, USA.
authors.forename: Shalini V
authors.initials: SV
authors.lastname: Gohil
authors.affiliation: Institute for Regenerative Engineering, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|The Raymond and Beverly Sackler Center for Biomedical Biological, Physical and Engineering Sciences, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|Department of Orthopaedic Surgery, University of Connecticut Health Center, Farmington, CT, 06030, USA.|Department of Materials Science and Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06268, USA.|Department of Biomedical Engineering, University of Connecticut, Storrs, CT, 06268, USA.
authors.forename: Cato T
authors.initials: CT
authors.lastname: Laurencin
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001861:Bone Regeneration; D018786:Bone Substitutes / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D006801:Humans; D044968:Regenerative Medicine / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D023822:Tissue Engineering / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends
chemical_list: D018786:Bone Substitutes
keywords: biomaterials; bone; composites; osteogenesis; regenerative engineering
references.citation: J Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2011 Apr;5(4):e17-35
references.pmid: 21413155
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2006 May;27(13):2682-91
references.pmid: 16413052
references.citation: Biomaterials. 1996 Jan;17(1):31-5
references.pmid: 8962945
references.citation: Trends Biotechnol. 2008 Aug;26(8):434-41
references.pmid: 18585808
references.citation: Nature. 1969 Jul 5;223(5201):88-90
references.pmid: 5792440
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 2001 Oct;57(1):63-71
references.pmid: 11416850
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2005 Jun;26(17):3565-75
references.pmid: 15621247
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2003 Sep;24(20):3611-7
references.pmid: 12809791
references.citation: Curr Opin Cell Biol. 2003 Oct;15(5):565-71
references.pmid: 14519391
references.citation: Tissue Eng Part A. 2012 Jul;18(13-14):1376-88
references.pmid: 22401817
references.citation: Acta Anat (Basel). 1964;59:1-46
references.pmid: 14263908
references.citation: J Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2011 Nov;5(10):780-9
references.pmid: 22002921
references.citation: Calcif Tissue Int. 2000 Oct;67(4):321-9
references.pmid: 11000347
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2010 Jun;9(6):518-26
references.pmid: 20418863
references.citation: Trends Biotechnol. 2014 Feb;32(2):74-81
references.pmid: 24405851
references.citation: Dent Mater. 2007 Jul;23(7):844-54
references.pmid: 16904738
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2010 Jan;31(1):1-8
references.pmid: 19788947
references.citation: Int J Nanomedicine. 2014;9:167-81
references.pmid: 24399874
references.citation: Orthop Clin North Am. 2006 Jan;37(1):65-74
references.pmid: 16311112
references.citation: Adv Mater. 2011 Dec 1;23(45):5415-8
references.pmid: 22028244
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2006 Sep;27(25):4419-27
references.pmid: 16690121
references.citation: Dev Cell. 2004 Apr;6(4):483-95
references.pmid: 15068789
references.citation: Bone. 2009 Jul;45(1):4-16
references.pmid: 19358900
references.citation: Biomacromolecules. 2007 Oct;8(10):3000-7
references.pmid: 17883273
references.citation: Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 2000 Sep 24;276(2):461-5
references.pmid: 11027497
references.citation: J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004 Feb;86(2):290-7
references.pmid: 14960673
references.citation: Ann Med. 2003;35(8):564-77
references.pmid: 14708967
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res B Appl Biomater. 2011 Apr;97(1):10-9
references.pmid: 21290570
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2005 Sep;26(27):5474-91
references.pmid: 15860204
references.citation: J Spinal Disord Tech. 2003 Apr;16(2):113-22
references.pmid: 12679664
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2003 Dec;24(27):4987-97
references.pmid: 14559012
references.citation: Biomacromolecules. 2004 Nov-Dec;5(6):2212-20
references.pmid: 15530035
references.citation: J Colloid Interface Sci. 2004 Jul 15;275(2):488-95
references.pmid: 15178277
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2009 Jun;30(17):3035-41
references.pmid: 19345410
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res A. 2004 Mar 1;68(3):411-22
references.pmid: 14762920
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2000 Nov;21(22):2232-41
references.pmid: 11026629
references.citation: Electrochem commun. 2009 Oct 1;11(10):1956
references.pmid: 20160915
references.citation: Annu Int Conf IEEE Eng Med Biol Soc. 2011;2011:2464-7
references.pmid: 22254840
references.citation: Tissue Eng. 2005 Jan-Feb;11(1-2):1-18
references.pmid: 15738657
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2012 Mar;33(7):1982-90
references.pmid: 22182748
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2000 Sep;21(17):1803-10
references.pmid: 10905463
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2010 Feb;31(6):1171-9
references.pmid: 19880177
references.citation: Cell. 2006 Aug 25;126(4):663-76
references.pmid: 16904174
references.citation: Pharmacol Biochem Behav. 2014 Jan;116:55-63
references.pmid: 24246910
references.citation: Expert Opin Biol Ther. 2006 Sep;6(9):847-66
references.pmid: 16918253
references.citation: Acta Biomater. 2012 Jan;8(1):302-12
references.pmid: 22023750
references.citation: Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2002 Feb;(395):81-98
references.pmid: 11937868
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2012 Apr;33(11):3205-15
references.pmid: 22285104
references.citation: Life Sci. 1999;64(4):249-58
references.pmid: 10027759
references.citation: Adv Funct Mater. 2010 Sep 9;20(17):2743-2957
references.pmid: 21789036
references.citation: Biomaterials. 1999 Jul;20(13):1221-7
references.pmid: 10395391
references.citation: Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2007 Dec 10;59(14):1392-412
references.pmid: 17884240
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2008 Apr;29(11):1563-72
references.pmid: 18199478
references.citation: Spine J. 2005 Nov-Dec;5(6 Suppl):224S-230S
references.pmid: 16291117
references.citation: Macromol Biosci. 2010 Jan 11;10(1):12-27
references.pmid: 19688722
references.citation: Science. 2005 Nov 18;310(5751):1135-8
references.pmid: 16293749
references.citation: Eur Cell Mater. 2011 May 15;21:407-29; discussion 429
references.pmid: 21604242
references.citation: J Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2007 Jan-Feb;1(1):25-32
references.pmid: 18038389
references.citation: J Polym Sci B Polym Phys. 2011 Jun 15;49(12):832-864
references.pmid: 21769165
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 1990 Mar;24(3):331-43
references.pmid: 2156869
references.citation: Biomacromolecules. 2008 Jul;9(7):1818-25
references.pmid: 18517248
references.citation: Nano Today. 2010 Dec 1;5(6):553-569
references.pmid: 21383869
references.citation: Biomed Res Int. 2013;2013:832790
references.pmid: 24455730
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2007 Dec;28(34):5058-67
references.pmid: 17697711
references.citation: J R Soc Interface. 2010 Oct 6;7 Suppl 5:S631-47
references.pmid: 20484228
references.citation: J Bone Miner Res. 2012 Aug;27(8):1773-83
references.pmid: 22492532
references.citation: Acta Biomater. 2012 Nov;8(11):3876-87
references.pmid: 22796326
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2006 Feb 28;103(9):3357-62
references.pmid: 16492781
references.citation: J Am Chem Soc. 2002 Mar 6;124(9):1910-7
references.pmid: 11866603
references.citation: Spine (Phila Pa 1976). 2006 Aug 15;31(18):E636-40
references.pmid: 16915079
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2002 May;23(9):1921-30
references.pmid: 11996032
references.citation: Adv Funct Mater. 2014 May 28;24(20):3082-3093
references.pmid: 25342948
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res A. 2010 Jan;92(1):114-25
references.pmid: 19165780
references.citation: Annu Rev Cell Dev Biol. 2011;27:409-40
references.pmid: 21801016
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 2001 May 1;58(3):270-6
references.pmid: 11319740
references.citation: Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1997 Jan;(334):316-25
references.pmid: 9005929
references.citation: Ann Surg. 1920 Jan;71(1):32-9
references.pmid: 17864220
references.citation: Adv Healthc Mater. 2013 Jan;2(1):145-54
references.pmid: 23184495
references.citation: Biomaterials. 1998 Aug;19(16):1419-23
references.pmid: 9794512
references.citation: J Control Release. 2010 Aug 17;146(1):6-15
references.pmid: 20359512
references.citation: Int J Nanomedicine. 2006;1(3):317-32
references.pmid: 17717972
references.citation: Annu Rev Biomed Eng. 1999;1:19-46
references.pmid: 11701481
references.citation: J Tissue Eng Regen Med. 2014 Sep;8(9):728-36
references.pmid: 22815259
references.citation: Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2013 Oct;24(5):847-54
references.pmid: 23578463
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2014 Jul;35(20):5294-5306
references.pmid: 24703716
references.citation: Adv Funct Mater. 2011 May 24;21(10):1754-1768
references.pmid: 21921999
references.citation: Bone. 1996 Jul;19(1 Suppl):93S-99S
references.pmid: 8831000
references.citation: Nat Cell Biol. 2000 Jan;2(1):E13-4
references.pmid: 10620816
references.citation: Nanomedicine (Lond). 2011 Jan;6(1):157-81
references.pmid: 21182426
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2003 Oct;21(10):1171-8
references.pmid: 14520402
references.citation: Int J Biochem Cell Biol. 2008;40(8):1467-80
references.pmid: 18328773
references.citation: Crit Rev Biomed Eng. 2012;40(5):363-408
references.pmid: 23339648
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2009 Sep;30(26):4325-35
references.pmid: 19501901
references.citation: Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2007 May 30;59(4-5):234-48
references.pmid: 17478007
references.citation: Expert Rev Med Devices. 2006 Jan;3(1):49-57
references.pmid: 16359252
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res A. 2004 Jun 15;69(4):728-37
references.pmid: 15162415
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2014 Jun;13(6):645-52
references.pmid: 24633344
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res A. 2003 Dec 15;67(4):1401-11
references.pmid: 14624528
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2005 May;26(14):1793-801
references.pmid: 15576153
references.citation: PLoS One. 2014 Jul 14;9(7):e101627
references.pmid: 25019622
references.citation: J Endourol. 1997 Dec;11(6):383-9
references.pmid: 9440845
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2005 Jun;26(17):3461-9
references.pmid: 15621235
references.citation: Skeletal Radiol. 1999 Sep;28(9):483-97
references.pmid: 10525792
references.citation: Langmuir. 2008 Aug 5;24(15):8071-7
references.pmid: 18588322
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2009 Mar;30(9):1682-8
references.pmid: 19136152
references.citation: Am J Physiol Heart Circ Physiol. 2005 Jul;289(1):H336-43
references.pmid: 15734877
references.citation: Adv Mater. 2014 Mar 26;26(12):1846-85
references.pmid: 24677434
references.citation: Nat Cell Biol. 2002 Apr;4(4):E75-6
references.pmid: 11944037
references.citation: Arch Surg. 1966 Nov;93(5):839-43
references.pmid: 5921307
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2005 Dec;26(34):6941-9
references.pmid: 16009417
references.citation: J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2008 Feb;19(2):667-75
references.pmid: 17619955
references.citation: Adv Mater. 2006 Feb 17;18(4):405-409
references.pmid: 21552389
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2008 Aug 12;105(32):11099-104
references.pmid: 18678895
references.citation: J Bone Joint Surg Am. 1993 Jun;75(6):825-34
references.pmid: 8314823
references.citation: Nanomedicine. 2013 Aug;9(6):829-38
references.pmid: 23318398
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2000 Apr;21(7):667-81
references.pmid: 10711964
references.citation: Int J Biol Macromol. 2013 Nov;62:465-71
references.pmid: 24080452
references.citation: Biomed Mater. 2014 Jun;9(3):035001
references.pmid: 24687391
references.citation: Biotechnol Bioeng. 2004 Apr 5;86(1):9-18
references.pmid: 15007836
references.citation: Science. 2002 Feb 8;295(5557):1014-7
references.pmid: 11834817
references.citation: Biotechnol Adv. 2013 Dec;31(8):1514-31
references.pmid: 23911974
references.citation: Spine J. 2009 Aug;9(8):630-8
references.pmid: 19501025
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 1984 Jan;81(2):371-5
references.pmid: 6320184
references.citation: Eur Spine J. 2001 Oct;10 Suppl 2:S141-6
references.pmid: 11716011
references.citation: J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2006 Nov;17(11):967-78
references.pmid: 17122907
references.citation: J Bone Joint Surg Br. 2000 Nov;82(8):1095-9
references.pmid: 11132264
references.citation: Chem Rev. 2008 Nov;108(11):4742-53
references.pmid: 19006399
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2012 Apr;33(12):3475-84
references.pmid: 22322198
references.citation: Adv Mater. 2010 Dec 21;22(48):5494-8
references.pmid: 20941802
references.citation: Nanomedicine (Lond). 2013 Apr;8(4):639-53
references.pmid: 23560413
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2009 Jun;8(6):457-70
references.pmid: 19458646
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2010 Aug 24;107(34):15211-6
references.pmid: 20696917
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2007 Sep;28(26):3856-66
references.pmid: 17568666
references.citation: J Pharm Sci. 2009 Apr;98(4):1317-75
references.pmid: 18729202
references.citation: Free Radic Biol Med. 2008 Jan 15;44(2):180-92
references.pmid: 18191754
references.citation: Matrix Biol. 2003 Nov;22(6):459-65
references.pmid: 14667838
references.citation: Drug Discov Today. 2014 Jun;19(6):794-800
references.pmid: 24508820
references.citation: Eur Spine J. 2003 Oct;12 Suppl 2:S142-6
references.pmid: 13680318
references.citation: J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 1996;7(8):661-9
references.pmid: 8639475
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 1993 Aug;27(8):999-1006
references.pmid: 8408128
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2003 Apr 29;100(9):5413-8
references.pmid: 12686696
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2006 Jul;27(20):3738-44
references.pmid: 16530826
references.citation: Sci Transl Med. 2011 Sep 14;3(100):100ra89
references.pmid: 21918106
references.citation: Angle Orthod. 1994;64(3):175-88
references.pmid: 8060014
references.citation: Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2011 Apr 30;63(4-5):300-11
references.pmid: 21396416
references.citation: ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2012 Feb;4(2):680-6
references.pmid: 22211371
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res A. 2008 Jan;84(1):54-62
references.pmid: 17600320
references.citation: Orthopedics. 2002 May;25(5 Suppl):s571-8
references.pmid: 12038844
references.citation: Sci Transl Med. 2012 Nov 14;4(160):160ed9
references.pmid: 23152324
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2011 Dec 27;108(52):20976-81
references.pmid: 22171002
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2009 Mar;30(7):1428-39
references.pmid: 19081131
references.citation: Tissue Eng Part A. 2008 Mar;14(3):423-32
references.pmid: 18333794
references.citation: Adv Biochem Eng Biotechnol. 2007;103:275-308
references.pmid: 17195467
references.citation: J Orthop Traumatol. 2009 Mar;10(1):1-8
references.pmid: 19384628
references.citation: J Orthop Res. 2004 Mar;22(2):376-81
references.pmid: 15013099
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2001 Nov;19(11):1029-34
references.pmid: 11689847
references.citation: Tissue Eng. 2002 Aug;8(4):635-47
references.pmid: 12202003
references.citation: J Rehabil Res Dev. 2001 Mar-Apr;38(2):175-81
references.pmid: 11392650
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2006 Jun;27(18):3413-31
references.pmid: 16504284
references.citation: Joint Bone Spine. 2000;67(3):150-6
references.pmid: 10875310
references.citation: Ann Biomed Eng. 2014 Jun;42(6):1261-70
references.pmid: 24570389
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2009 Jan;8(1):15-23
references.pmid: 19096389
references.citation: J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2004 Apr;15(4):373-80
references.pmid: 15332602
references.citation: Clin Orthop Relat Res. 1984 Jul-Aug;(187):277-80
references.pmid: 6744730
references.citation: Nat Med. 1995 Dec;1(12):1322-4
references.pmid: 7489417
references.citation: Eur Spine J. 2001 Oct;10 Suppl 2:S96-101
references.pmid: 11716023
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2012 Sep;11(9):768-74
references.pmid: 22751181
references.citation: Science. 1980 May 23;208(4446):826-31
references.pmid: 6246576
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2014 Feb;35(7):2149-61
references.pmid: 24332391
references.citation: J Bone Joint Surg Br. 1960 Feb;42-B:28-30
references.pmid: 13855642
references.citation: Acta Biomater. 2013 Mar;9(3):5475-83
references.pmid: 23153761
references.citation: Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2007 Dec 10;59(14):1413-33
references.pmid: 17916396
references.citation: J Postgrad Med. 2002 Apr-Jun;48(2):142-8
references.pmid: 12215702
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2006 May;27(14):2798-805
references.pmid: 16430957
references.citation: Science. 2001 Nov 23;294(5547):1684-8
references.pmid: 11721046
references.citation: J Pharm Pharmacol. 2007 Feb;59(2):311-5
references.pmid: 17270084
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2001 Oct;22(19):2617-23
references.pmid: 11519781
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2010 Jun;31(18):4898-908
references.pmid: 20334909
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 1994 Jan;28(1):7-15
references.pmid: 8126031
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 1986 Sep;20(7):989-1002
references.pmid: 3020060
references.citation: Science. 1993 May 14;260(5110):920-6
references.pmid: 8493529
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 2002 Jun 15;60(4):613-21
references.pmid: 11948520
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2005 Aug;26(23):4847-55
references.pmid: 15763264
references.citation: Clin Orthop Relat Res. 2013 Aug;471(8):2422-33
references.pmid: 23436161
references.citation: Acta Biomater. 2014 Jun;10(6):2341-53
references.pmid: 24556448
references.citation: J Neurosurg. 2001 Oct;95(2 Suppl):215-20
references.pmid: 11599839
references.citation: Science. 2013 Aug 30;341(6149):1240104
references.pmid: 23990565
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2004 Aug;25(19):4731-9
references.pmid: 15120519
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2003 Feb;24(4):597-609
references.pmid: 12437954
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2013 Jan;34(4):1063-72
references.pmid: 23164424
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2001 Jun;22(11):1271-7
references.pmid: 11336299
references.citation: J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2001 Jun;12(6):529-34
references.pmid: 15348269
references.citation: Science. 2009 Jun 26;324(5935):1673-7
references.pmid: 19556500
references.citation: Curr Opin Biotechnol. 1999 Apr;10(2):123-9
references.pmid: 10209141
references.citation: J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2010 Jun;21(6):1845-54
references.pmid: 20238147
references.citation: Acta Biomater. 2012 Jan;8(1):341-9
references.pmid: 21964215
references.citation: Curr Opin Biotechnol. 2010 Oct;21(5):704-9
references.pmid: 20638268
references.citation: Biomacromolecules. 2014 Jun 9;15(6):2038-48
references.pmid: 24773176
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res A. 2009 Dec;91(3):679-91
references.pmid: 19030184
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2004 Aug 3;101(31):11203-8
references.pmid: 15277663
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2004 Mar-Apr;25(7-8):1279-87
references.pmid: 14643602
references.citation: Eur Cell Mater. 2008 May 02;15:100-14
references.pmid: 18454418
references.citation: J Musculoskelet Neuronal Interact. 2009 Apr-Jun;9(2):61-71
references.pmid: 19516081
references.citation: Nat Biotechnol. 2004 May;22(5):560-7
references.pmid: 15077117
references.citation: Asian Cardiovasc Thorac Ann. 2002 Mar;10(1):25-30
references.pmid: 12079966
references.citation: J Biomater Sci Polym Ed. 2007;18(3):241-68
references.pmid: 17471764
references.citation: J Biomed Mater Res. 2000 Sep 15;51(4):726-34
references.pmid: 10880122
references.citation: Langmuir. 2010 Jul 20;26(14):12126-31
references.pmid: 20450216
references.citation: Injury. 2005 Nov;36 Suppl 3:S20-7
references.pmid: 16188545
references.citation: Chem Rev. 2008 Nov;108(11):4628-69
references.pmid: 18816145
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2003 Nov;24(24):4353-64
references.pmid: 12922148
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2014 Jan;35(4):1176-84
references.pmid: 24211076
references.citation: Int J Nanomedicine. 2013;8:2305-17
references.pmid: 23836972
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2002 Jan;23(2):551-9
references.pmid: 11761175
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2008 Jan;29(3):337-49
references.pmid: 17942150
references.citation: Spine J. 2008 Nov-Dec;8(6):882-7
references.pmid: 18280215
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2013 Jan;34(2):452-9
references.pmid: 23099062
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2012 May 27;11(7):642-9
references.pmid: 22635042
references.citation: J Biomed Nanotechnol. 2009 Feb;5(1):69-75
references.pmid: 20055108
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2006 Feb;27(6):807-22
references.pmid: 16213014
references.citation: ACS Appl Mater Interfaces. 2009 Jul;1(7):1599-606
references.pmid: 20355967
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2001 Jun;22(11):1311-20
references.pmid: 11336303
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2007 Sep;6(9):673-9
references.pmid: 17643105
references.citation: Instr Course Lect. 1996;45:171-82
references.pmid: 8727736
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2003 Nov;24(24):4385-415
references.pmid: 12922151
references.citation: J Control Release. 2007 Jul 16;120(1-2):111-21
references.pmid: 17512077
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2006 Mar;27(8):1399-409
references.pmid: 16169074
references.citation: Science. 1965 Nov 12;150(3698):893-9
references.pmid: 5319761
references.citation: Biomaterials. 1997 Sep;18(17):1185-90
references.pmid: 9259516
references.citation: Science. 2012 Jul 20;337(6092):303-5
references.pmid: 22822138
references.citation: Science. 2009 Apr 3;324(5923):59-63
references.pmid: 19342581
references.citation: Bone. 1996 Aug;19(2):173-80
references.pmid: 8853862
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2009 Jul;8(7):543-57
references.pmid: 19525947
references.citation: J Mater Sci Mater Med. 2008 Apr;19(4):1503-13
references.pmid: 18266084
references.citation: Biotechnol Bioeng. 2003 Jun 30;82(7):784-90
references.pmid: 12701144
references.citation: Science. 2007 Dec 21;318(5858):1917-20
references.pmid: 18029452
references.citation: Ann Biomed Eng. 2014 Feb;42(2):432-44
references.pmid: 24468975
references.citation: Cell Rep. 2014 Feb 13;6(3):482-98
references.pmid: 24485659
references.citation: J Bone Joint Surg Am. 2004 Jul;86(7):1541-58
references.pmid: 15252108
references.citation: Chem Rev. 1999 Nov 10;99(11):3181-98
references.pmid: 11749514
references.citation: J R Soc Interface. 2008 Oct 6;5(27):1137-58
references.pmid: 18667387
references.citation: Adv Drug Deliv Rev. 2013 Apr;65(4):471-96
references.pmid: 22465488
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2000 Dec;21(24):2521-7
references.pmid: 11071602
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2005 Jan;26(1):23-36
references.pmid: 15193878
references.citation: Nat Mater. 2005 Jul;4(7):518-24
references.pmid: 16003400
references.citation: Biomaterials. 2008 Mar;29(8):1085-98
references.pmid: 18083225
references.citation: Scand J Clin Lab Invest. 1959;11 Supp 38:1-82
references.pmid: 13658913
references.citation: Bone. 2005 May;36(5):745-57
references.pmid: 15814303