title: Molecular imaging of apoptosis: from micro to macro.
abstract: Apoptosis, or programmed cell death, is involved in numerous human conditions including neurodegenerative diseases, ischemic damage, autoimmune disorders and many types of cancer, and is often confused with other types of cell death. Therefore strategies that enable visualized detection of apoptosis would be of enormous benefit in the clinic for diagnosis, patient management, and development of new therapies. In recent years, improved understanding of the apoptotic machinery and progress in imaging modalities have provided opportunities for researchers to formulate microscopic and macroscopic imaging strategies based on well-defined molecular markers and/or physiological features. Correspondingly, a large collection of apoptosis imaging probes and approaches have been documented in preclinical and clinical studies. In this review, we mainly discuss microscopic imaging assays and macroscopic imaging probes, ranging in complexity from simple attachments of reporter moieties to proteins that interact with apoptotic biomarkers, to rationally designed probes that target biochemical changes. Their clinical translation will also be our focus.
authors.affiliation: 1. School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Molecular Imaging Research Centre, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China;
authors.forename: Wenbin
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Zeng
authors.affiliation: 1. School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Molecular Imaging Research Centre, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China;
authors.forename: Xiaobo
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Wang
authors.affiliation: 1. School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, and Molecular Imaging Research Centre, Central South University, Changsha, 410013, China;
authors.forename: Pengfei
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Xu
authors.affiliation: 2. Centre for Molecular Imaging and Translational Medicine, State Key Laboratory of Molecular Vaccinology and Molecular Diagnostics, School of Public Health, Xiamen University, Xiamen, 361102, China.
authors.forename: Gang
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Liu
authors.affiliation: 3. Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA.
authors.forename: Henry S
authors.initials: HS
authors.lastname: Eden
authors.affiliation: 3. Laboratory of Molecular Imaging and Nanomedicine, National Institute of Biomedical Imaging and Bioengineering, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, Maryland, 20892, USA.
authors.forename: Xiaoyuan
authors.initials: X
authors.lastname: Chen
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D017209:Apoptosis; D051017:Apoptosis Regulatory Proteins / Q000378:metabolism; D005456:Fluorescent Dyes / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology; D006801:Humans; D008856:Microscopy, Fluorescence / Q000379:methods; D057054:Molecular Imaging / Q000379:methods*; D019275:Radiopharmaceuticals / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D051017:Apoptosis Regulatory Proteins; D005456:Fluorescent Dyes; D019275:Radiopharmaceuticals
keywords: Apoptosis; Clinical translation.; Macroscopic imaging probes; Microscopic imaging assays
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