title: Neural mechanisms of negative reinforcement in children and adolescents with autism spectrum disorders.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Previous research has found accumulating evidence for atypical reward processing in autism spectrum disorders (ASD), particularly in the context of social rewards. Yet, this line of research has focused largely on positive social reinforcement, while little is known about the processing of negative reinforcement in individuals with ASD.
  
  
  METHODS
  The present study examined neural responses to social negative reinforcement (a face displaying negative affect) and non-social negative reinforcement (monetary loss) in children with ASD relative to typically developing children, using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI).
  
  
  RESULTS
  We found that children with ASD demonstrated hypoactivation of the right caudate nucleus while anticipating non-social negative reinforcement and hypoactivation of a network of frontostriatal regions (including the nucleus accumbens, caudate nucleus, and putamen) while anticipating social negative reinforcement. In addition, activation of the right caudate nucleus during non-social negative reinforcement was associated with individual differences in social motivation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  These results suggest that atypical responding to negative reinforcement in children with ASD may contribute to social motivational deficits in this population.
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #3270, Davie Hall, 27599-3270 Chapel Hill, NC USA ; Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7255, 27599-7255 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: Cara R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Damiano
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #3270, Davie Hall, 27599-3270 Chapel Hill, NC USA ; Virginia Tech Carilion School of Medicine and Research Institute, 2 Riverside Circle Suite M140, 24016 Roanoke, VA USA.
authors.forename: Dillon C
authors.initials: DC
authors.lastname: Cockrell
authors.affiliation: Brain Imaging and Analysis Center (BIAC), Duke University Medical Center, 2424 Erwin Road Suite 501, 27708 Durham, NC USA.
authors.forename: Kaitlyn
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Dunlap
authors.affiliation: Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7255, 27599-7255 Chapel Hill, NC USA ; Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Duke University, Box # 90999, 27708 Durham, NC USA.
authors.forename: Eleanor K
authors.initials: EK
authors.lastname: Hanna
authors.affiliation: Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7255, 27599-7255 Chapel Hill, NC USA ; UNC School of Social Work, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Education, CB #3550, 27599-3550 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: Stephanie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.affiliation: Brain Imaging and Analysis Center (BIAC), Duke University Medical Center, 2424 Erwin Road Suite 501, 27708 Durham, NC USA ; Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7160, 27599-7160 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: Joshua
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Bizzell
authors.affiliation: School Psychology Program, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Education, CB #3550, 27599-3550 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: Megan
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kovac
authors.affiliation: Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7255, 27599-7255 Chapel Hill, NC USA ; TEACCH Autism Program, CB# 7180 UNC-Chapel Hill, 27599-7180 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: Lauren
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Turner-Brown
authors.affiliation: Frank Porter Graham Child Development Institute, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #8185, 27599-8185 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: John
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Sideris
authors.affiliation: Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7255, 27599-7255 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: Jessica
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Kinard
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, CB #3270, Davie Hall, 27599-3270 Chapel Hill, NC USA ; Carolina Institute for Developmental Disabilities, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7255, 27599-7255 Chapel Hill, NC USA ; Brain Imaging and Analysis Center (BIAC), Duke University Medical Center, 2424 Erwin Road Suite 501, 27708 Durham, NC USA ; Department of Psychiatry, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill School of Medicine, CB #7160, 27599-7160 Chapel Hill, NC USA.
authors.forename: Gabriel S
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: Dichter
keywords: Autism spectrum disorders (ASD); Negative reinforcement; Reward loss; Reward motivation; Reward processing; Social motivation
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