title: Interactions between Human Norovirus Surrogates and Acanthamoeba spp.
abstract: Human noroviruses (HuNoVs) are the most common cause of food-borne disease outbreaks, as well as virus-related waterborne disease outbreaks in the United States. Here, we hypothesize that common free-living amoebae (FLA)-ubiquitous in the environment, known to interact with pathogens, and frequently isolated from water and fresh produce-could potentially act as reservoirs of HuNoV and facilitate the environmental transmission of HuNoVs. To investigate FLA as reservoirs for HuNoV, the interactions between two Acanthamoeba species, A. castellanii and A. polyphaga, as well as two HuNoV surrogates, murine norovirus type 1 (MNV-1) and feline calicivirus (FCV), were evaluated. The results showed that after 1 h of amoeba-virus incubation at 25°C, 490 and 337 PFU of MNV-1/ml were recovered from A. castellanii and A. polyphaga, respectively, while only few or no FCVs were detected. In addition, prolonged interaction of MNV-1 with amoebae was investigated for a period of 8 days, and MNV-1 was demonstrated to remain stable at around 200 PFU/ml from day 2 to day 8 after virus inoculation in A. castellanii. Moreover, after a complete amoeba life cycle (i.e., encystment and excystment), infectious viruses could still be detected. To determine the location of virus associated with amoebae, immunofluorescence experiments were performed and showed MNV-1 transitioning from the amoeba surface to inside the amoeba over a 24-h period. These results are significant to the understanding of how HuNoVs may interact with other microorganisms in the environment in order to aid in its persistence and survival, as well as potential transmission in water and to vulnerable food products such as fresh produce.
authors.affiliation: Department of Food Science, Center for Food Safety, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA.
authors.forename: Tun-Yun
authors.initials: TY
authors.lastname: Hsueh
authors.affiliation: Department of Food Science, Center for Food Safety, Division of Agriculture, University of Arkansas, Fayetteville, Arkansas, USA keg005@uark.edu.
authors.forename: Kristen E
authors.initials: KE
authors.lastname: Gibson
mesh_terms: D000048:Acanthamoeba / Q000254:growth & development / Q000502:physiology* / Q000648:ultrastructure / Q000821:virology*; D017927:Calicivirus, Feline / Q000254:growth & development / Q000472:pathogenicity / Q000502:physiology*; D004197:Disease Reservoirs; D029322:Norovirus / Q000254:growth & development / Q000472:pathogenicity / Q000502:physiology*; D053058:Trophozoites / Q000648:ultrastructure / Q000821:virology; D019562:Viral Load
references.citation: Lipids. 2013 Jun;48(6):639-50
references.pmid: 23636605
references.citation: Viruses. 2010 Mar;2(3):748-81
references.pmid: 21994656
references.citation: J Assoc Off Anal Chem. 1984 May-Jun;67(3):613-5
references.pmid: 6540260
references.citation: J Virol. 2010 Sep;84(17):8617-25
references.pmid: 20554772
references.citation: Cont Lens Anterior Eye. 1999;22(2):58-68
references.pmid: 16303407
references.citation: Euro Surveill. 2014;19(8):20719
references.pmid: 24602278
references.citation: Virol J. 2014;11:120
references.pmid: 24976356
references.citation: Annu Rev Microbiol. 1976;30:189-219
references.pmid: 791066
references.citation: J Basic Microbiol. 2012 Jun;52(3):261-8
references.pmid: 21953544
references.citation: J Food Prot. 2013 Jan;76(1):139-43
references.pmid: 23317870
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2006 Jul;30(4):564-95
references.pmid: 16774587
references.citation: Epidemiol Infect. 1999 Dec;123(3):469-74
references.pmid: 10694159
references.citation: J Microbiol Biotechnol. 2010 Feb;20(2):229-37
references.pmid: 20208424
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2010 Jul;109(1):231-8
references.pmid: 20059621
references.citation: Clin Diagn Lab Immunol. 2001 Jul;8(4):724-30
references.pmid: 11427418
references.citation: J Gen Virol. 2014 Feb;95(Pt 2):278-91
references.pmid: 24243731
references.citation: Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A. 2007 Jun 26;104(26):11050-5
references.pmid: 17581883
references.citation: J Hyg Epidemiol Microbiol Immunol. 1981;25(2):169-74
references.pmid: 6265550
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2011 Jan;17(1):7-15
references.pmid: 21192848
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2009 May;106(5):1579-90
references.pmid: 19226401
references.citation: Curr Opin Virol. 2012 Feb;2(1):96-102
references.pmid: 22440972
references.citation: Euro Surveill. 2010 Feb 11;15(6). pii: 19484
references.pmid: 20158982
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2011 Nov;77(21):7640-6
references.pmid: 21926221
references.citation: Water Sci Technol. 2010;61(3):563-71
references.pmid: 20150691
references.citation: Curr Opin Virol. 2014 Feb;4:50-7
references.pmid: 24440908
references.citation: PLoS Biol. 2004 Dec;2(12):e432
references.pmid: 15562321
references.citation: Emerg Infect Dis. 2012 Oct;18(10):1566-73
references.pmid: 23017158
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1973 Jan 25;248(2):439-47
references.pmid: 4684688
references.citation: Microb Pathog. 2003 Jun;34(6):277-85
references.pmid: 12782480
references.citation: J Biol Chem. 1976 May 25;251(10):2976-82
references.pmid: 1270435
references.citation: Infect Immun. 1994 Aug;62(8):3254-61
references.pmid: 8039895
references.citation: J Am Chem Soc. 2014 Sep 10;136(36):12631-7
references.pmid: 25105447
references.citation: Food Environ Virol. 2012 Mar;4(1):6-13
references.pmid: 22408689
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2011 Jan;77(1):385-91
references.pmid: 21075885
references.citation: J Virol. 2009 May;83(9):4092-101
references.pmid: 19244326
references.citation: Science. 2003 Mar 7;299(5612):1575-8
references.pmid: 12624267
references.citation: Glycobiology. 2009 Mar;19(3):309-20
references.pmid: 19054801
references.citation: Trop Med Parasitol. 1995 Jun;46(2):106-8
references.pmid: 8525280
references.citation: Annu Rev Immunol. 1999;17:593-623
references.pmid: 10358769
references.citation: J Appl Microbiol. 2010 Aug;109(2):716-30
references.pmid: 20233263
references.citation: Int J Parasitol. 2004 Aug;34(9):1001-27
references.pmid: 15313128
references.citation: Viruses. 2010 Apr;2(4):1011-49
references.pmid: 21994669
references.citation: J Virol Methods. 2010 Oct;169(1):112-8
references.pmid: 20637238
references.citation: J Med Virol. 2008 Aug;80(8):1468-76
references.pmid: 18551613
references.citation: J Cell Biochem. 1996 May;61(2):167-71
references.pmid: 9173081
references.citation: Environ Microbiol. 2010 Sep;12(9):2385-97
references.pmid: 20636374
references.citation: Clin Microbiol Rev. 2003 Apr;16(2):273-307
references.pmid: 12692099
references.citation: J Virol. 2011 Dec;85(24):13027-37
references.pmid: 21994457
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2007 Dec;73(24):7853-7
references.pmid: 17965205
references.citation: J Clin Microbiol. 2009 Aug;47(8):2411-8
references.pmid: 19494060
references.citation: FEMS Microbiol Lett. 2008 May;282(2):258-65
references.pmid: 18399997
references.citation: Euro Surveill. 2005 Sep;10(9):E050922.2
references.pmid: 16788235
references.citation: Rev Infect Dis. 1991 Mar-Apr;13 Suppl 5:S369-72
references.pmid: 2047665
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2008 Apr;74(8):2518-25
references.pmid: 18310421
references.citation: Food Environ Virol. 2015 Mar;7(1):14-26
references.pmid: 25526719
references.citation: J Cell Biol. 1974 Aug;62(2):533-40
references.pmid: 4139166
references.citation: Eukaryot Cell. 2006 Apr;5(4):665-71
references.pmid: 16607014
references.citation: Microbiologyopen. 2012 Dec;1(4):427-37
references.pmid: 23233434
references.citation: Exp Parasitol. 2014 Nov;145 Suppl:S39-45
references.pmid: 24999094
references.citation: Appl Environ Microbiol. 2014 Sep;80(18):5743-51
references.pmid: 25015883
references.citation: J Antimicrob Chemother. 2000 Jul;46(1):27-34
references.pmid: 10882685
references.citation: Parasitol Res. 2012 Jul;111(1):479-85
references.pmid: 22290448
references.citation: PLoS Pathog. 2008 Jun;4(6):e1000087
references.pmid: 18551172