title: Evidence for intercontinental parasite exchange through molecular detection and characterization of haematozoa in northern pintails (Anas acuta) sampled throughout the North Pacific Basin.
abstract: Empirical evidence supports wild birds as playing a role in the interhemispheric exchange of bacteria and viruses; however, data supporting the redistribution of parasites among continents are limited. In this study, the hypothesis that migratory birds contribute to the redistribution of parasites between continents was tested by sampling northern pintails (Anas acuta) at locations throughout the North Pacific Basin in North America and East Asia for haemosporidian infections and assessing the genetic evidence for parasite exchange. Of 878 samples collected from birds in Alaska (USA), California (USA), and Hokkaido (Japan) during August 2011-May 2012 and screened for parasitic infections using molecular techniques, Leucocytozoon, Haemoproteus, and Plasmodium parasites were detected in 555 (63%), 44 (5%), and 52 (6%) samples, respectively. Using an occupancy modeling approach, the probability of detecting parasites via replicate genetic tests was estimated to be high (ρ > 0.95). Multi-model inference supported variation of Leucocytozoon parasite prevalence by northern pintail age class and geographic location of sampling in contrast to Haemoproteus and Plasmodium parasites for which there was only support for variation in parasite prevalence by sampling location. Thirty-one unique mitochondrial DNA haplotypes were detected among haematozoa infecting northern pintails including seven lineages shared between samples from North America and Japan. The finding of identical parasite haplotypes at widely distributed geographic locations and general lack of genetic structuring by continent in phylogenies for Leucocytozoon and Plasmodium provides evidence for intercontinental genetic exchange of haemosporidian parasites. Results suggest that migratory birds, including waterfowl, could therefore facilitate the introduction of avian malaria and other haemosporidia to novel hosts and spatially distant regions.
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, Alaska 99508, USA ; Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA.
authors.forename: Andrew M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Ramey
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, Alaska 99508, USA.
authors.forename: Joel A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Schmutz
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey, Alaska Science Center, 4210 University Drive, Anchorage, Alaska 99508, USA.
authors.forename: John A
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Reed
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Biodiversity Science, University of Tokyo, Yayoi 1-1-1, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-8657, Japan.
authors.forename: Go
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Fujita
authors.affiliation: US Fish and Wildlife Service, Koyukuk-Nowitna National Wildlife Refuge, P.O. Box 287, Galena, Alaska 99641, USA.
authors.forename: Bradley D
authors.initials: BD
authors.lastname: Scotton
authors.affiliation: US Fish and Wildlife Service, Izembek National Wildlife Refuge, P.O. Box 127, Cold Bay, Alaska 99571, USA.
authors.forename: Bruce
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Casler
authors.affiliation: US Geological Survey, Western Ecological Research Center, 800 Business Park Drive, Suite D, Dixon, California 95620, USA.
authors.forename: Joseph P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Fleskes
authors.affiliation: Kutcharo Lake Waterfowl Observatory, Hamatombetsu, Esashi, Hokkaido 098-5739, Japan.
authors.forename: Kan
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Konishi
authors.affiliation: Institute of Satoyama Natural History, Midori 1-11-11, Abiko City, Chiba 270-1153, Japan.
authors.forename: Kiyoshi
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Uchida
authors.affiliation: Southeastern Cooperative Wildlife Disease Study, Department of Population Health, College of Veterinary Medicine, The University of Georgia, 589 D. W. Brooks Drive, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA ; Warnell School of Forestry and Natural Resources, The University of Georgia, 180 East Green Street, Athens, Georgia 30602, USA.
authors.forename: Michael J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Yabsley
keywords: Anas acuta; Haematozoa; Haemoproteus; Leucocytozoon; Northern pintail; Pacific Basin; Plasmodium
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