title: At-sea trial of 24-h-based submarine watchstanding schedules with high and low correlated color temperature light sources.
abstract: United States Navy submariners have historically lived with circadian disruption while at sea due to 18-h-based watchschedules. Previous research demonstrated that circadian entrainment improved with 24-h-based watchschedules. Twenty-nine male crew members participated in the study, which took place on an actual submarine patrol. The crew were exposed, first, to experimental high correlated color temperature (CCT = 13,500 K) fluorescent light sources and then to standard-issue fluorescent light sources (CCT = 4100 K). A variety of outcome measures were employed to determine if higher levels of circadian-effective light during on-watch times would further promote behavioral alignment to 24-h-based watchschedules. The high CCT light source produced significantly higher circadian light exposures than the low CCT light source, which was associated with significantly greater 24-h behavioral alignment with work schedules using phasor analysis, greater levels of sleep efficiency measured with wrist actigraphy, lower levels of subjective sleepiness measured with the Karolinska Sleepiness Scale, and higher nighttime melatonin concentrations measured by morning urinary 6-sulfatoxymelatonin/creatinine ratios. Unlike these diverse outcome measures, performance scores were significantly worse under the high CCT light source than under the low CCT light source, due to practice effects. As hypothesized, with the exception of the performance scores, all of the data converge to suggest that high CCT light sources, combined with 24-h watchschedules, promote better behavioral alignment with work schedules and greater sleep quality on submarines. Since the order and the type of light sources were confounded in this field study, the results should only be considered as consistent with our theoretical understanding of how regular, 24-h light-dark exposures combined with high circadian light exposures can promote greater behavioral alignment with work schedules and with sleep.
authors.affiliation: Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory, Groton, Connecticut.
authors.forename: Colin R
authors.initials: CR
authors.lastname: Young
authors.affiliation: Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.
authors.forename: Geoffrey E
authors.initials: GE
authors.lastname: Jones
authors.affiliation: Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York.
authors.forename: Mariana G
authors.initials: MG
authors.lastname: Figueiro
authors.affiliation: Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory, Groton, Connecticut.
authors.forename: Shawn E
authors.initials: SE
authors.lastname: Soutière
authors.affiliation: Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory, Groton, Connecticut.
authors.forename: Matthew W
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Keller
authors.affiliation: Naval Submarine Medical Research Laboratory, Groton, Connecticut.
authors.forename: Annely M
authors.initials: AM
authors.lastname: Richardson
authors.affiliation: Submarine Squadron 6, Norfolk, Virginia.
authors.forename: Benjamin J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Lehmann
authors.affiliation: Lighting Research Center, Rensselaer Polytechnic Institute, Troy, New York ream@rpi.edu.
authors.forename: Mark S
authors.initials: MS
authors.lastname: Rea
mesh_terms: D056044:Actigraphy; D000328:Adult; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000032:analysis / Q000652:urine; D002940:Circadian Rhythm / Q000502:physiology*; D003404:Creatinine / Q000378:metabolism / Q000652:urine; D006801:Humans; D008029:Lighting / Q000379:methods; D008297:Male; D008550:Melatonin / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000378:metabolism / Q000652:urine; D008889:Military Personnel / Q000523:psychology*; D012463:Saliva / Q000378:metabolism; D012890:Sleep / Q000502:physiology; D012894:Sleep Stages / Q000502:physiology; D013696:Temperature; D014851:Wakefulness / Q000502:physiology; D014940:Work Schedule Tolerance; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; C054513:6-sulfatoxymelatonin; D003404:Creatinine; D008550:Melatonin
keywords: circadian system; lighting; performance; short-wavelength light; submarine watchstanding