title: Increased Automaticity and Altered Temporal Preparation Following Sleep Deprivation.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  Temporal expectation enables us to focus limited processing resources, thereby optimizing perceptual and motor processing for critical upcoming events. We investigated the effects of total sleep deprivation (TSD) on temporal expectation by evaluating the foreperiod and sequential effects during a psychomotor vigilance task (PVT). We also examined how these two measures were modulated by vulnerability to TSD.
  
  
  METHODS
  Three 10-min visual PVT sessions using uniformly distributed foreperiods were conducted in the wake-maintenance zone the evening before sleep deprivation (ESD) and three more in the morning following approximately 22 h of TSD. TSD vulnerable and nonvulnerable groups were determined by a tertile split of participants based on the change in the number of behavioral lapses recorded during ESD and TSD. A subset of participants performed six additional 10-min modified auditory PVTs with exponentially distributed foreperiods during rested wakefulness (RW) and TSD to test the effect of temporal distribution on foreperiod and sequential effects.
  
  
  METHODS
  Sleep laboratory.
  
  
  METHODS
  There were 172 young healthy participants (90 males) with regular sleep patterns. Nineteen of these participants performed the modified auditory PVT.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Despite behavioral lapses and slower response times, sleep deprived participants could still perceive the conditional probability of temporal events and modify their level of preparation accordingly. Both foreperiod and sequential effects were magnified following sleep deprivation in vulnerable individuals. Only the foreperiod effect increased in nonvulnerable individuals.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The preservation of foreperiod and sequential effects suggests that implicit time perception and temporal preparedness are intact during total sleep deprivation. Individuals appear to reallocate their depleted preparatory resources to more probable event timings in ongoing trials, whereas vulnerable participants also rely more on automatic processes.
authors.affiliation: Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore.
authors.forename: Danyang
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Kong
authors.affiliation: Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore.|Division of Social Sciences, Yale-NUS College, Singapore.
authors.forename: Christopher L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Asplund
authors.affiliation: Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore.
authors.forename: Aiqing
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ling
authors.affiliation: Center for Cognitive Neuroscience, Neuroscience and Behavioral Disorders Program, Duke-NUS Graduate Medical School, Singapore.
authors.forename: Michael W L
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Chee
mesh_terms: D001288:Attention / Q000502:physiology; D005260:Female; D064368:Healthy Volunteers; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D011597:Psychomotor Performance / Q000502:physiology; D011930:Reaction Time / Q000502:physiology; D012890:Sleep; D012892:Sleep Deprivation / Q000503:physiopathology* / Q000523:psychology*; D013997:Time Factors; D013998:Time Perception; D014851:Wakefulness / Q000502:physiology; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: foreperiod; implicit timing; sequential effect; sleep deprivation; temporal expectation; vulnerability
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