title: Advances in MRI for the evaluation of carotid atherosclerosis.
abstract: Carotid artery atherosclerosis is an important source of mortality and morbidity in the Western world with significant socioeconomic implications. The quest for the early identification of the vulnerable carotid plaque is already in its third decade and traditional measures, such as the sonographic degree of stenosis, are not selective enough to distinguish those who would really benefit from a carotid endarterectomy. MRI of the carotid plaque enables the visualization of plaque composition and specific plaque components that have been linked to a higher risk of subsequent embolic events. Blood suppressed T1 and T2 weighted and proton density-weighted fast spin echo, gradient echo and time-of-flight sequences are typically used to quantify plaque components such as lipid-rich necrotic core, intraplaque haemorrhage, calcification and surface defects including erosion, disruption and ulceration. The purpose of this article is to review the most important recent advances in MRI technology to enable better diagnostic carotid imaging.
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: G C
authors.initials: GC
authors.lastname: Makris
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: Z
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Teng
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: A J
authors.initials: AJ
authors.lastname: Patterson
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: J-M
authors.initials: JM
authors.lastname: Lin
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: V
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Young
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: M J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Graves
authors.affiliation: Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.
authors.forename: J H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Gillard
mesh_terms: D002340:Carotid Artery Diseases / Q000473:pathology*; D002343:Carotid Artery, Internal / Q000473:pathology; D019788:Fluorodeoxyglucose F18; D006470:Hemorrhage / Q000473:pathology; D006801:Humans; D021621:Imaging, Three-Dimensional; D018810:Magnetic Resonance Angiography / Q000379:methods*; D058226:Plaque, Atherosclerotic / Q000473:pathology; D019275:Radiopharmaceuticals
chemical_list: D019275:Radiopharmaceuticals; D019788:Fluorodeoxyglucose F18
references.citation: Radiology. 2006 Nov;241(2):459-68
references.pmid: 16966482
references.citation: Magn Reson Med. 2010 Nov;64(5):1341-51
references.pmid: 20574968
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2009;11:31
references.pmid: 19689816
references.citation: Stroke. 2009 Jan;40(1):86-93
references.pmid: 18927453
references.citation: Circulation. 2000 Aug 29;102(9):959-64
references.pmid: 10961958
references.citation: Neurointervention. 2014 Feb;9(1):9-20
references.pmid: 24644529
references.citation: Stroke. 2004 May;35(5):1079-84
references.pmid: 15060318
references.citation: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2007 Aug;26(2):344-52
references.pmid: 17610283
references.citation: J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2010 Mar;81(3):286-9
references.pmid: 19939857
references.citation: Eur J Radiol. 2012 Mar;81(3):e304-9
references.pmid: 22115798
references.citation: Angiogenesis. 2010 Jun;13(2):87-99
references.pmid: 20526859
references.citation: Circulation. 2003 Jun 24;107(24):3047-52
references.pmid: 12796133
references.citation: Stroke. 2013 Nov;44(11):3071-7
references.pmid: 23988640
references.citation: Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2010 Oct;40(4):485-91
references.pmid: 20724181
references.citation: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2005 Nov;22(5):628-33
references.pmid: 16215965
references.citation: Neurology. 2009 Jun 2;72(22):1941-7
references.pmid: 19487652
references.citation: Lancet Neurol. 2009 Jun;8(6):569-80
references.pmid: 19446276
references.citation: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2013 Sep 17;62(12):1081-91
references.pmid: 23850912
references.citation: J Vasc Surg. 2007 Apr;45(4):768-75
references.pmid: 17349771
references.citation: Atherosclerosis. 2012 Aug;223(2):321-6
references.pmid: 22762729
references.citation: J Biomech. 2011 Sep 23;44(14):2551-7
references.pmid: 21824619
references.citation: Circ J. 2010 Nov;74(11):2360-4
references.pmid: 20834184
references.citation: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2010 May;31(5):1256-63
references.pmid: 20432365
references.citation: Circulation. 2008 Sep 2;118(10):e147-8
references.pmid: 18765382
references.citation: Atherosclerosis. 2012 May;222(1):43-9
references.pmid: 22284956
references.citation: N Engl J Med. 1998 Nov 12;339(20):1415-25
references.pmid: 9811916
references.citation: JAMA. 2000 Dec 13;284(22):2901-6
references.pmid: 11147987
references.citation: J Biomech Eng. 2010 Mar;132(3):031007
references.pmid: 20459195
references.citation: Circulation. 2011 Feb 1;123(4):e18-e209
references.pmid: 21160056
references.citation: Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2011 Oct;42(4):427-33
references.pmid: 21641239
references.citation: Cardiovasc Res. 2011 Feb 15;89(3):680-8
references.pmid: 21030534
references.citation: Br J Radiol. 2012 Jul;85(1015):937-44
references.pmid: 22294703
references.citation: Circulation. 2005 Nov 29;112(22):3437-44
references.pmid: 16301346
references.citation: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2003 Apr;17(4):478-83
references.pmid: 12655588
references.citation: J Lipid Res. 2012 May;53(5):829-38
references.pmid: 22393161
references.citation: Neuroradiology. 1995 Nov;37(8):631-5
references.pmid: 8748893
references.citation: AJNR Am J Neuroradiol. 2010 Sep;31(8):1395-402
references.pmid: 20651015
references.citation: Stroke. 2003 Feb;34(2):514-23
references.pmid: 12574569
references.citation: Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005 Mar;25(3):611-6
references.pmid: 15653565
references.citation: BMJ. 2004 Feb 7;328(7435):326
references.pmid: 14744823
references.citation: Radiology. 2008 Aug;248(2):550-60
references.pmid: 18574135
references.citation: Circulation. 2004 Nov 16;110(20):3239-44
references.pmid: 15533871
references.citation: Magn Reson Med. 2007 Nov;58(5):973-81
references.pmid: 17969103
references.citation: Stroke. 2005 Dec;36(12):2642-7
references.pmid: 16282536
references.citation: Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2011 Jan;41(1):83-90
references.pmid: 20951614
references.citation: Stroke. 2007 Aug;38(8):2382-90
references.pmid: 17600232
references.citation: PLoS One. 2012;7(9):e45008
references.pmid: 23028736
references.citation: Circ J. 2008 Jul;72(7):1092-9
references.pmid: 18577817
references.citation: Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2013 Jan;45(1):7-21
references.pmid: 23200607
references.citation: PLoS One. 2013;8(4):e61522
references.pmid: 23626694
references.citation: Cerebrovasc Dis. 2011;31(3):263-70
references.pmid: 21178351
references.citation: Nat Rev Cardiol. 2010 Mar;7(3):165-73
references.pmid: 20101259
references.citation: Lancet. 1989 Oct 21;2(8669):941-4
references.pmid: 2571862
references.citation: Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2005 Jan;25(1):234-9
references.pmid: 15528475
references.citation: J Vasc Surg. 2003 Dec;38(6):1241-7
references.pmid: 14681621
references.citation: Magn Reson Med. 2012 Nov;68(5):1423-38
references.pmid: 22246917
references.citation: Stroke. 2009 Oct;40(10):3258-63
references.pmid: 19628799
references.citation: J Biomech. 2014 Mar 3;47(4):847-58
references.pmid: 24485514
references.citation: Nat Rev Drug Discov. 2004 Nov;3(11):913-25
references.pmid: 15520814
references.citation: Magn Reson Med. 2011 Mar;65(3):627-37
references.pmid: 20941742
references.citation: Circulation. 1996 Sep 1;94(5):932-8
references.pmid: 8790028
references.citation: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2008 Apr;27(4):918-24
references.pmid: 18383253
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2007;9(1):33-42
references.pmid: 17178678
references.citation: Am Heart J. 2008 Mar;155(3):584.e1-8
references.pmid: 18294500
references.citation: Stroke. 1994 Feb;25(2):304-8
references.pmid: 8303736
references.citation: Lancet. 2007 Jan 27;369(9558):283-92
references.pmid: 17258668
references.citation: Stroke. 2009 Dec;40(12):3718-24
references.pmid: 19875738
references.citation: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2006 Jul;24(1):203-10
references.pmid: 16739123
references.citation: J Magn Reson Imaging. 2003 Apr;17(4):410-20
references.pmid: 12655579
references.citation: J Am Coll Cardiol. 2008 Mar 11;51(10):979-85
references.pmid: 18325435
references.citation: Arterioscler Thromb Vasc Biol. 2010 Mar;30(3):403-10
references.pmid: 20139362
references.citation: Eur J Vasc Endovasc Surg. 2004 Aug;28(2):207-13
references.pmid: 15234703
references.citation: J Cardiovasc Magn Reson. 2011;13:64
references.pmid: 22032404
references.citation: Circulation. 2001 Oct 23;104(17):2051-6
references.pmid: 11673345
references.citation: J Thromb Haemost. 2012 Mar;10(3):466-73
references.pmid: 22235978