title: Using pictograms to assist caregivers in liquid medication administration: a systematic review.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  It has been reported that more than 80% of out-of-hospital medication errors among the young children involve liquid formulations. The usefulness of pictorial aids to improve communication of medication instructions has not been extensively investigated for child health. The objective of this study was to determine the effectiveness of pictorial aids used to assist caregivers in the administration of liquid medications.
  
  
  METHODS
  MEDLINE, CINAHL, PsycINFO, ScienceDirect, Scopus and the Cochrane Library were searched for articles published up to February 2015. Studies that used pictorial aids with liquid medications and measured at least one of the following outcomes were included: dosing accuracy, comprehension of medication instructions, recall of information and adherence of caregivers. Two authors independently selected studies, extracted data and assessed methodological quality of studies using the Cochrane Collaboration's tool.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Five experimental studies (four hospital based and one community based) with a total of 962 participants were included. A wide range of liquid formulations were studied, including both prescription and over-the-counter medications. The existing findings suggest that pictographic interventions reduced dosing errors, enhanced comprehension and recall of medication instructions and improved adherence of caregivers. Incorporating pictorial aids into verbal medication counselling or text-based instructions was more beneficial than using the single approach alone. Mixed results were identified for the relationship between health literacy of caregivers and effectiveness of pictorial aids.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The evidence remains limited due to the small number of studies found and variations in methodological quality. This review suggests that pictorial aids might be potential interventions, but more high-quality studies are needed to support the routine use of any pictogram-based materials with liquid medications in the clinical settings.
authors: Department of Pharmacy, Hospital Sultanah Bahiyah, Kedah, Malaysia.
authors: H K
authors: HK
authors: Chan
authors: M A
authors: MA
authors: Hassali
authors: C J
authors: CJ
authors: Lim
authors: F
authors: F
authors: Saleem
authors: W L
authors: WL
authors: Tan
mesh_terms: D001296:Audiovisual Aids; D017028:Caregivers; D032882:Comprehension; D058015:Health Communication / Q000379:methods*; D057220:Health Literacy; D006801:Humans; D010353:Patient Education as Topic / Q000379:methods*; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000008:administration & dosage*
chemical_list: D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations
keywords: caregivers; graphics; health literacy; medication adherence; medication errors; paediatrics