title: Periodontal Inflammatory Conditions Among Smokers and Never-Smokers With and Without Type 2 Diabetes Mellitus.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  There is a dearth of studies regarding the influence of cigarette smoking on periodontal inflammatory conditions among patients with type 2 diabetes mellitus (T2DM). The aim of the present study is to assess periodontal inflammatory conditions among smokers and never-smokers with and without T2DM.
  
  
  METHODS
  One hundred individuals (50 patients with T2DM [25 smokers and 25 never-smokers] and 50 controls [25 smokers and 25 never-smokers]) were included. Information regarding age, sex, duration and daily frequency of smoking, duration and treatment of diabetes, and oral hygiene was recorded using a questionnaire. Periodontal parameters (plaque index [PI], bleeding on probing [BOP], probing depth [PD], clinical attachment loss [AL], and marginal bone loss [MBL]) were measured. Hemoglobin A1c (HbA1c) levels were also recorded.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Mean age, monthly income status, and education levels were comparable among smokers and never-smokers with and without T2DM. Mean HbA1c levels were significantly higher among patients with T2DM (8.2% ± 0.1%) compared with controls (4.4% ± 0.3%) (P <0.05). Smokers in the control group were smoking significantly greater numbers of cigarettes (15.5 ± 2.5 cigarettes daily) compared with smokers with T2DM (6.2 ± 2.1 cigarettes daily) (P <0.05). Periodontal parameters were comparable among smokers and never-smokers with T2DM. Among controls, periodontal parameters (PI [P <0.05], AL [P <0.05], PD ≥4 mm [P <0.05], and MBL [P <0.05]) were significantly higher in smokers than never-smokers. Never-smokers with T2DM had worse periodontal status than smokers and never-smokers in the control group (P <0.05).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Periodontal inflammatory conditions are comparable among smokers and never-smokers with T2DM. Among controls, periodontal inflammation is worse among smokers than never-smokers.
authors: Division of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors: Fawad
authors: F
authors: Javed
authors: Dental Biomaterials Research Chair, Dental Health Department, College of Applied Medical Sciences, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia.
authors: Abdulaziz A
authors: AA
authors: Al-Kheraif
authors: Division of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors: Karem
authors: K
authors: Salazar-Lazo
authors: Division of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors: Virginia
authors: V
authors: Yanez-Fontenla
authors: Dental Department, King Khalid University Hospital, King Saud University.
authors: Khalid M
authors: KM
authors: Aldosary
authors: Dental Department, King Khalid University Hospital, King Saud University.
authors: Mohammed
authors: M
authors: Alshehri
authors: Division of General Dentistry, Eastman Institute for Oral Health, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY.
authors: Hans
authors: H
authors: Malmstrom
authors: Department of Periodontology, School of Dental Medicine, Stony Brook University, Stony Brook, NY.
authors: Georgios E
authors: GE
authors: Romanos
mesh_terms: D016301:Alveolar Bone Loss / Q000145:classification; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003774:Dental Plaque Index; D003924:Diabetes Mellitus, Type 2 / Q000097:blood / Q000150:complications*; D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin / Q000032:analysis; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009910:Oral Hygiene; D017622:Periodontal Attachment Loss / Q000145:classification; D010512:Periodontal Index; D010514:Periodontal Pocket / Q000145:classification; D010518:Periodontitis / Q000145:classification*; D012907:Smoking
chemical_list: D006442:Glycated Hemoglobin
keywords: Alveolar bone loss; dental plaque; gingival bleeding on probing; inflammation; smoking; type 2 diabetes mellitus