title: Variation in maternal urinary cortisol profiles across the peri-conceptional period: a longitudinal description and evaluation of potential functions.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  How do women's first morning urinary cortisol levels, a marker of stress axis activity, vary during the peri-conceptional period (the 12 weeks around conception)?
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  First morning urinary cortisol follows an overall increasing trajectory across the peri-conceptional period, interrupted by 2 week-long decreases during the week preceding conception and the fifth week following conception.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Later gestational stages (i.e. second and third trimesters) are characterized by increasing levels of circulating cortisol. This increase is hypothesized to constitute a response to the energy demands imposed by fetal growth, and the development of energy reserves in preparation for nursing and performing regular activities while carrying pregnancy's extra weight and volume.
  
  
  METHODS
  This study is based on a data set collected as part of a longitudinal, naturalistic investigation into the interactions between the stress (hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPAA)) and reproductive (hypothalamic-pituitary-gonadal axis (HPGA)) axes. Biomarkers of HPAA and HPGA function were quantified in first morning urinary specimens collected every other day from 22 healthy women who conceived a pregnancy during the study. We analyzed the longitudinal within- and between-individual variation in first morning urinary cortisol levels across the 12-week peri-conceptional period.
  
  
  METHODS
  Participants were recruited from two rural, aboriginal, neighboring communities in Guatemala. Cortisol, estradiol and progesterone metabolites (estrone-3-glucuronide and pregnanediol glucuronide, respectively) and hCG levels were quantified in first morning urinary specimens using immunoassays to determine time of conception and confirm pregnancy maintenance. Linear mixed-effects models with regression splines were used to evaluate the magnitude and significance of changes in cortisol trajectories.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Overall, maternal first morning urinary cortisol increased from 6 weeks prior to conception (geometric mean ± SD = 58.14 ± 36.00 ng/ml) to 6 weeks post-conception (89.29 ± 46.76 ng/ml). The magnitude of the increase between the pre- and post-conception periods varied significantly between women (likelihood ratio test statistic = 8.0017, P = 0.005). The peri-conceptional period is characterized by an increasing cortisol trajectory (+1.36% per day; P = 0.007) interrupted by a week-long decline immediately prior to conception (-4.02% per day; P = 0.0013). After conception cortisol increased again (+1.73% per day; P = 0.0008) for 4 weeks, fell in the fifth week (-6.60% per day; P = 0.0002) and increased again in post-conceptional week 6 (+8.86% per day; P = 0.002). Maternal urinary cortisol levels varied with sex of the gestating embryo. During gestational week 2, mothers carrying female embryos (N = 10) had higher mean cortisol levels than those carrying male embryos (N = 9) (t(17) = 2.28, P = 0.04).
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results are based on a relatively small sample (n = 22) of women. However, our repeated-measures design with an average of 27 ± 8 (mean ± SD) data points per woman strengthens the precision of estimates resulting in high statistical power. Additionally, our study population's high degree of ethnic and cultural homogeneity reduces the effects of confounders compared with those found in industrialized populations. This higher level of homogeneity also increases our statistical power. However, since there may be small differences in absolute cortisol values among ethnic groups, the social and biological background of our sample may affect the generalizability of our results. General patterns of HPAA activity, however, are expected to be universal across women. Finally, as there is, to the best of our knowledge, no evidence to the contrary, we assumed that urinary cortisol levels reflect HPAA activity and that changes in gonadal steroids across the menstrual cycle do not affect the levels of free cortisol measured in urine.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  To our knowledge, this is the first longitudinal profile of basal maternal HPAA activity across the peri-conceptional period. A basic understanding of the normative (basal as opposed to stress-induced) changes in HPAA activity across this period is needed to accurately assess women's stress at this juncture. Importantly, changes in HPAA activity are likely to play a critical role in ovulation, fertilization, implantation, placentation and embryonic programing. Thus, this novel information should aid in the development of interventions aimed at preventing or moderating undesired effects of maternal physiological stress during the peri-conceptional period on reproductive outcomes as well as embryonic development.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  This research was funded by a CIHR IGH Open Operating grant (CIHR 106705) to P.A.N. and L.Z.; a Simon Fraser University (SFU) President's Start-up grant, a Community Trust Endowment Fund grant through SFU's Human Evolutionary Studies Program and a Michael Smith Foundation for Health Research Career Investigator Scholar Award to P.A.N.; an NSERC Discovery grant to L.Z.; a CIHR Post-Doctoral Fellowship to C.K.B. and an NSERC Undergraduate Student Research Award to H.M. and J.C.B. The funding agencies had no role in the design, analysis, interpretation or reporting of the findings. There are no competing interests.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Not applicable.
authors.affiliation: Maternal and Child Health Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6 Human Evolutionary Studies Program, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6 pablo_nepomnaschy@sfu.ca kgsalvan@sfu.ca.
authors.forename: P A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Nepomnaschy
authors.affiliation: Maternal and Child Health Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6 Human Evolutionary Studies Program, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6 pablo_nepomnaschy@sfu.ca kgsalvan@sfu.ca.
authors.forename: K G
authors.initials: KG
authors.lastname: Salvante
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics and Actuarial Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1.
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Zeng
authors.affiliation: Maternal and Child Health Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6 Human Evolutionary Studies Program, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pyles
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics and Actuarial Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1.
authors.forename: H
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Ma
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics and Actuarial Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1.
authors.forename: J C
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Blais
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics and Actuarial Sciences, University of Waterloo, 200 University Avenue West, Waterloo, ON, Canada N2L 3G1.
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Wen
authors.affiliation: Maternal and Child Health Laboratory, Faculty of Health Sciences, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6 Human Evolutionary Studies Program, Simon Fraser University, 8888 University Drive, Burnaby, BC, Canada V5A 1S6.
authors.forename: C K
authors.initials: CK
authors.lastname: Barha
mesh_terms: D015415:Biomarkers / Q000652:urine; D006063:Chorionic Gonadotropin / Q000652:urine; D004958:Estradiol / Q000652:urine; D004970:Estrone / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000652:urine; D005260:Female; D005306:Fertilization; D006166:Guatemala; D006801:Humans; D006854:Hydrocortisone / Q000652:urine*; D016014:Linear Models; D011247:Pregnancy / Q000652:urine*; D011276:Pregnanediol / Q000031:analogs & derivatives / Q000652:urine; D011374:Progesterone / Q000378:metabolism / Q000652:urine*; D012044:Regression Analysis
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D006063:Chorionic Gonadotropin; C022270:pregnanediol-3 alpha-glucuronide; C015856:estrone-3-glucuronide; D004970:Estrone; D011374:Progesterone; D004958:Estradiol; D011276:Pregnanediol; D006854:Hydrocortisone
keywords: conception; fetal development; hypothalamic pituitary adrenal axis; implantation; urinary cortisol