title: Genomic insights on the ethno-history of the Maya and the 'Ladinos' from Guatemala.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Guatemala is a multiethnic and multilingual country located in Central America. The main population groups separate 'Ladinos' (mixed Native American-African-Spanish), and Native indigenous people of Maya descent. Among the present-day Guatemalan Maya, there are more than 20 different ethnic groups separated by different languages and cultures. Genetic variation of these communities still remains largely unexplored. The principal aim of this study is to explore the genetic variability of the Maya and 'Ladinos' from Guatemala by means of uniparental and ancestry informative markers (AIMs).
  
  
  RESULTS
  Analyses of uniparental genetic markers indicate that Maya have a dominant Native American ancestry (mitochondrial DNA [mtDNA]: 100%; Y-chromosome: 94%). 'Ladino', however, show a clear gender-bias as indicated by the large European ancestry observed in the Y-chromosome (75%) compared to the mtDNA (0%). Autosomal polymorphisms (AIMS) also mirror this marked gender-bias: (i) Native American ancestry: 92% for the Maya vs. 55% for the 'Ladino', and (ii) European ancestry: 8% for the Maya vs. 41% for the 'Ladino'. In addition, the impact of the Trans-Atlantic slave trade on the present-day Guatemalan population is very low (and only occurs in the 'Ladino'; mtDNA: 9%;
  
  
  OBJECTIVE
  4%), in part mirroring the fact that Guatemala has a predominant orientation to the Pacific Ocean instead of a Caribbean one. Sequencing of entire Guatemalan mitogenomes has led to improved Native American phylogeny via the addition of new haplogroups that are mainly observed in Mesoamerica and/or the North of South America.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The data reveal the existence of a fluid gene flow in the Mesoamerican area and a predominant unidirectional flow towards South America, most likely occurring during the Pre-Classic (1800 BC-200 AD) and the Classic (200-1000 AD) Eras of the Mesoamerican chronology, coinciding with development of the most distinctive and advanced Mesoamerican civilization, the Maya. Phylogenetic features of mtDNA data also suggest a demographic scenario that is compatible with moderate local endogamy and isolation in the Maya combined with episodes of gene exchange between ethnic groups, suggesting an ethno-genesis in the Guatemalan Maya that is recent and supported on a cultural rather than a biological basis.
authors.affiliation: Unidade de Xenética, Departamento de Anatomía Patolóxica e Ciencias Forenses, and Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, CP 15872, Galicia, Spain. jens.soechtig@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Jens
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Söchtig
authors.affiliation: Unidade de Xenética, Departamento de Anatomía Patolóxica e Ciencias Forenses, and Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, CP 15872, Galicia, Spain. vanesa.alvarez@usc.es.
authors.forename: Vanesa
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Álvarez-Iglesias
authors.affiliation: Unidade de Xenética, Departamento de Anatomía Patolóxica e Ciencias Forenses, and Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, CP 15872, Galicia, Spain. ana.mosquera@usc.es.
authors.forename: Ana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Mosquera-Miguel
authors.affiliation: Unidade de Xenética, Departamento de Anatomía Patolóxica e Ciencias Forenses, and Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, CP 15872, Galicia, Spain. miguel.gelabert.besada@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Miguel
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Gelabert-Besada
authors.affiliation: Unidade de Xenética, Departamento de Anatomía Patolóxica e Ciencias Forenses, and Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, CP 15872, Galicia, Spain. Alberto.Gomez.Carballa@sergas.es.
authors.forename: Alberto
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Gómez-Carballa
authors.affiliation: Unidade de Xenética, Departamento de Anatomía Patolóxica e Ciencias Forenses, and Instituto de Ciencias Forenses, Facultade de Medicina, Universidade de Santiago de Compostela, CP 15872, Galicia, Spain. Antonio.salas@usc.es.
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Salas
mesh_terms: D041322:Chromosomes, Human, Y / Q000235:genetics; D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial / Q000032:analysis / Q000145:classification / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D005006:Ethnicity / Q000235:genetics*; D005787:Gene Frequency; D005828:Genetics, Population; D015894:Genome, Human; D006166:Guatemala; D006239:Haplotypes; D006801:Humans; D010802:Phylogeny; D020641:Polymorphism, Single Nucleotide; D025341:Principal Component Analysis; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA
chemical_list: D004272:DNA, Mitochondrial