title: Low empathy in deaf and hard of hearing (pre)adolescents compared to normal hearing controls.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  The purpose of this study was to examine the level of empathy in deaf and hard of hearing (pre)adolescents compared to normal hearing controls and to define the influence of language and various hearing loss characteristics on the development of empathy.
  
  
  METHODS
  The study group (mean age 11.9 years) consisted of 122 deaf and hard of hearing children (52 children with cochlear implants and 70 children with conventional hearing aids) and 162 normal hearing children. The two groups were compared using self-reports, a parent-report and observation tasks to rate the children's level of empathy, their attendance to others' emotions, emotion recognition, and supportive behavior.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Deaf and hard of hearing children reported lower levels of cognitive empathy and prosocial motivation than normal hearing children, regardless of their type of hearing device. The level of emotion recognition was equal in both groups. During observations, deaf and hard of hearing children showed more attention to the emotion evoking events but less supportive behavior compared to their normal hearing peers. Deaf and hard of hearing children attending mainstream education or using oral language show higher levels of cognitive empathy and prosocial motivation than deaf and hard of hearing children who use sign (supported) language or attend special education. However, they are still outperformed by normal hearing children.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Deaf and hard of hearing children, especially those in special education, show lower levels of empathy than normal hearing children, which can have consequences for initiating and maintaining relationships.
authors.affiliation: Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Anouk P
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Netten
authors.affiliation: Department of Developmental Psychology, Leiden University, Leiden, The Netherlands; Dutch Foundation for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Child, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Carolien
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Rieffe
authors.affiliation: Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Stephanie C P M
authors.initials: SC
authors.lastname: Theunissen
authors.affiliation: Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Wim
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Soede
authors.affiliation: Dutch Foundation for the Deaf and Hard of Hearing Child, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Evelien
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Dirks
authors.affiliation: Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Jeroen J
authors.initials: JJ
authors.lastname: Briaire
authors.affiliation: Department of Otorhinolaryngology and Head & Neck Surgery, Leiden University Medical Center, Leiden, The Netherlands; Leiden Institute for Brain and Cognition, Leiden, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Johan H M
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Frijns
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D001519:Behavior; D002648:Child; D019929:Cochlear Implantation; D003638:Deafness / Q000523:psychology* / Q000601:surgery; D004645:Empathy; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D010290:Parents / Q000523:psychology; D019986:Persons with Hearing Disabilities / Q000523:psychology*; D057566:Self Report; D012813:Sign Language