title: Pharmaceutically active compounds: Their removal during slow sand filtration and their impact on slow sand filtration bacterial removal.
abstract: Slow sand filtration (SSF) has been widely used as a means of providing potable water due to its efficacy, low cost, and minimal maintenance. Advances in analytical instrumentation have revealed the occurrence of pharmaceutically active compounds (PhACs) in surface water as well as in groundwater. It is unclear if the presence of these compounds in the feed water can interfere with the performances of an SSF unit. The aim of this work was to examine i) the ability of two SSF units to remove six PhACs (caffeine, carbamazepine, 17-β estradiol [E2], estrone [E1], gemfibrozil, and phenazone), and ii) the impact of these PhACs on the removal of bacteria by two SSF units. The presence of PhACs in feed water for SSF can occur in surface waters impacted by wastewater or leakage from sewers and septic tanks, as well as in developing countries where unregulated use and improper disposal are prevalent. Two pilot-scale SSF units were used during the study. Unit B1 was fed with stream water with 1% of primary effluent added, while unit B2 was fed with stream water alone. Although limited removal (<10%) of carbamazepine, gemfibrozil, and phenazone occurred, the complete removal of caffeine, and the partial removal (11-92%) of E2 and E1 were observed in the two SSF units. The results of this study suggest that the occurrence of the selected PhACs, probably estrogens and caffeine, in the feed water at 50 μg L(-1) affected the ability of the schmutzdecke to remove total coliform and Escherichia coli. The bacterial removal achieved within the schmutzdecke dropped from 95% to less than 20% by the end of the study. This decrease in removal may be related to the change in the microbial community within the schmutzdecke. A diverse microbial community, including Bacteroidetes and several classes of Proteobacteria, was replaced by a microbial community in which Gammaproteobacteria was the predominant phylum (99%). Despite the low removal achieved within the schmutzdecke, removal of total coliform and E. coli greater than 99% occurred after both SSF units throughout the study. Bacterial removal occurred in the upper half of the sand filter. This was probably due to a diverse microbial community established in the packing material, in which Bacteroidetes (13-25%), Acidobacteria (7-17%) and several classes of Proteobacteria (35-52%) (Alpha-, Beta-, Delta-, and Gammaproteobacteria) were the predominant phyla.
authors.affiliation: Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States.
authors.forename: Matteo
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: D'Alessio
authors.affiliation: Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States.
authors.forename: Bunnie
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Yoneyama
authors.affiliation: Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States.
authors.forename: Marek
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Kirs
authors.affiliation: Institute of Technology, University of Tartu, Nooruse 1, Tartu 50411, Estonia.
authors.forename: Veljo
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Kisand
authors.affiliation: Water Resources Research Center, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States; Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, University of Hawaii at Manoa, Honolulu, HI 96822, United States. Electronic address: cray@hawaii.edu.
authors.forename: Chittaranjan
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Ray
mesh_terms: D001673:Biodegradation, Environmental; D005374:Filtration / Q000379:methods*; D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations / Q000032:analysis*; D012822:Silicon Dioxide; D014865:Waste Disposal, Fluid / Q000379:methods*; D062065:Wastewater / Q000737:chemistry; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000032:analysis*; D018508:Water Purification / Q000379:methods
chemical_list: D004364:Pharmaceutical Preparations; D012822:Silicon Dioxide; D062065:Wastewater; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
keywords: Bacterial removal; PhACs; Schmutzdecke; Slow sand filtration