title: Measuring Individual Differences in the Perfect Automation Schema.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  A self-report measure of the perfect automation schema (PAS) is developed and tested.
  
  
  BACKGROUND
  Researchers have hypothesized that the extent to which users possess a PAS is associated with greater decreases in trust after users encounter automation errors. However, no measure of the PAS currently exists. We developed a self-report measure assessing two proposed PAS factors: high expectations and all-or-none thinking about automation performance.
  
  
  METHODS
  In two studies, participants responded to our PAS measure, interacted with imperfect automated aids, and reported trust.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Each of the two PAS measure factors demonstrated fit to the hypothesized factor structure and convergent and discriminant validity when compared with propensity to trust machines and trust in a specific aid. However, the high expectations and all-or-none thinking scales showed low intercorrelations and differential relationships with outcomes, suggesting that they might best be considered two separate constructs rather than two subfactors of the PAS. All-or-none thinking had significant associations with decreases in trust following aid errors, whereas high expectations did not. Results therefore suggest that the all-or-none thinking scale may best represent the PAS construct.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our PAS measure (specifically, the all-or-none thinking scale) significantly predicted the severe trust decreases thought to be associated with high PAS. Further, it demonstrated acceptable psychometric properties across two samples.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This measure may be used in future work to assess levels of PAS in users of automated systems in either research or applied settings.
authors.affiliation: University of Missouri, St. Louis merritts@umsl.edu.
authors.forename: Stephanie M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Merritt
authors.affiliation: University of Missouri, St. Louis.
authors.forename: Jennifer L
authors.initials: JL
authors.lastname: Unnerstall
authors.affiliation: University of Missouri, St. Louis.
authors.forename: Deborah
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: University of Missouri, St. Louis.
authors.forename: Kelli
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Huber
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D001331:Automation; D005163:Factor Analysis, Statistical; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007206:Individuality; D008297:Male; D008328:Man-Machine Systems; D015203:Reproducibility of Results; D057566:Self Report; D035502:Trust; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: all-or-none thinking; automation; high expectations; perfect automation schema; propensity to trust machines; trust