title: Cellular dynamics during regeneration of the flatworm Monocelis sp. (Proseriata, Platyhelminthes).
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Proseriates (Proseriata, Platyhelminthes) are free-living, mostly marine, flatworms measuring at most a few millimetres. In common with many flatworms, they are known to be capable of regeneration; however, few studies have been done on the details of regeneration in proseriates, and none cover cellular dynamics. We have tested the regeneration capacity of the proseriate Monocelis sp. by pre-pharyngeal amputation and provide the first comprehensive picture of the F-actin musculature, serotonergic nervous system and proliferating cells (S-phase in pulse and pulse-chase experiments and mitoses) in control animals and in regenerates.
  
  
  RESULTS
  F-actin staining revealed a strong body wall, pharynx and dorsoventral musculature, while labelling of the serotonergic nervous system showed an orthogonal pattern and a well developed subepidermal plexus. Proliferating cells were distributed in two broad lateral bands along the anteroposterior axis and their anterior extension was delimited by the brain. No proliferating cells were detected in the pharynx or epidermis. Monocelis sp. was able to regenerate the pharynx and adhesive organs at the tip of the tail plate within 2 or 3 days of amputation, and genital organs within 8 to 10 days. Posterior pieces were not able to regenerate a head. The posterior regeneration blastema was found to be a centre of cell proliferation, whereas within the pharynx primordium, little or no proliferation was detected. The pharynx regenerated outside of the blastema and was largely, but not solely formed by cells that were proliferating at the time of amputation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings suggest that proliferating cells or their offspring migrated to the place of organ differentiation and then stopped proliferating at that site. This mode of rebuilding organs resembles the mode of regeneration of the genital organs in another flatworm, Macrostomum lignano. Pharynx regeneration resembles embryonic development in Monocelis fusca and hints at the vertically directed pharynx being plesiomorphic in proseriates. Proliferation within the regeneration blastema has been detected in anterior and posterior blastemas of other flatworms, but is notably missing in triclads. The phylogenetic relationships of the flatworms studied indicate that proliferation within the blastema is the plesiomorphic condition in Platyhelminthes.
authors.affiliation: Research Unit of Evolutionary Developmental Biology, Institute of Zoology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria ; Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, WC1E 6BT London, UK.
authors.forename: Johannes
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Girstmair
authors.affiliation: Research Unit of Evolutionary Developmental Biology, Institute of Zoology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria ; Research Unit of Ecotoxicology, Institute of Zoology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria.
authors.forename: Raimund
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Schnegg
authors.affiliation: Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, WC1E 6BT London, UK.
authors.forename: Maximilian J
authors.initials: MJ
authors.lastname: Telford
authors.affiliation: Research Unit of Evolutionary Developmental Biology, Institute of Zoology, University of Innsbruck, Technikerstrasse 25, 6020 Innsbruck, Austria ; Department of Genetics, Evolution and Environment, University College London, Darwin Building, Gower Street, WC1E 6BT London, UK.
authors.forename: Bernhard
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Egger
keywords: blastema; flatworm; planarian; proliferation; proseriate; regeneration; turbellarian