title: Flaxseed oil intake reduces serum small dense low-density lipoprotein concentrations in Japanese men: a randomized, double blind, crossover study.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The effects of alpha-linolenic acid (ALA) on cardiovascular risk factors considerably vary between published reports. Therefore, we investigated the effects of 12-week supplementation with flaxseed oil (FO), which is a rich source of ALA, on cardiovascular risk factors such as serum small dense low-density lipoprotein (sd-LDL) concentrations.
  
  
  METHODS
  In a randomized, double blind, crossover study, 15 subjects ingested 10 g of FO or corn oil (CO), containing 5.49 g and 0.09 g of ALA, respectively, once daily with dinner. Blood samples were collected at 0, 4 and 12 weeks, and were used for analysis of serum lipid, lipid-related proteins, serum fatty acids and serum sd-LDL cholesterol. Differences during the test period were identified using a repeated-measures analysis of variance (ANOVA) for within-group effects. Group differences were identified using paired t-test at each blood sampling time point.
  
  
  RESULTS
  ALA and eicosapentaenoic acid concentrations were significantly higher in the FO period at 4 and 12 weeks than in the CO period. No significant differences in docosahexaenoic acid concentrations were observed between two periods, and cholesteryl ester transfer protein and apolipoprotein B concentrations were significantly lower in the FO period than in the CO period at 12 weeks. FO supplementation was associated with a significant decrease in sd-LDL concentrations at 4 and 12 weeks, and CO supplementation had no effect. Moreover, sd-LDL concentrations were significantly lower in the FO period than in the CO period at 4 weeks. Among subjects with triglyceride (TG) concentrations of >100 mg/dl, FO supplementation markedly reduced sd-LDL concentrations at 4 and 12 weeks compared with baseline. Sd-LDL concentrations significantly differed between the periods at both 4 and 12 weeks.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study indicates that the FO, which is a rich source of ALA, leads to lower sd-LDL cholesterol concentrations.
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Nutrition and Food Management, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15 Kuramoto, Tokushima, 770-8503, Japan. k.yuka0630@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Yuka
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Kawakami
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Nutrition and Food Management, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15 Kuramoto, Tokushima, 770-8503, Japan. okumurah@tokushima-u.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Hisami
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Yamanaka-Okumura
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Nutrition and Food Management, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15 Kuramoto, Tokushima, 770-8503, Japan. kuroki@town.kotoura.tottori.jp.
authors.forename: Yuko
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Naniwa-Kuroki
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Nutrition and Food Management, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15 Kuramoto, Tokushima, 770-8503, Japan. sakuma@u-shizuoka-ken.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Masae
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Sakuma
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Nutrition and Food Management, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15 Kuramoto, Tokushima, 770-8503, Japan. taketani@tokushima-u.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Yutaka
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Taketani
authors.affiliation: Department of Clinical Nutrition and Food Management, Institute of Health Biosciences, University of Tokushima Graduate School, 3-18-15 Kuramoto, Tokushima, 770-8503, Japan. takeda.eiji@tokushima-u.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Eiji
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Takeda
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000704:Analysis of Variance; D001055:Apolipoproteins B / Q000097:blood; D053480:Cholesterol Ester Transfer Proteins / Q000097:blood; D003314:Corn Oil / Q000008:administration & dosage / Q000494:pharmacology; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids / Q000097:blood*; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid / Q000097:blood*; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D008043:Linseed Oil / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000737:chemistry / Q000494:pharmacology*; D008077:Lipoproteins, LDL / Q000097:blood*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D013997:Time Factors; D016896:Treatment Outcome; D014280:Triglycerides / Q000097:blood; D017962:alpha-Linolenic Acid / Q000097:blood*
chemical_list: D001055:Apolipoproteins B; D053480:Cholesterol Ester Transfer Proteins; D008077:Lipoproteins, LDL; D014280:Triglycerides; D017962:alpha-Linolenic Acid; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids; D008043:Linseed Oil; D003314:Corn Oil; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid