title: Inflammatory mediator release from primary rhesus microglia in response to Borrelia burgdorferi results from the activation of several receptors and pathways.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In previous studies, neurons were documented to undergo apoptosis in the presence of microglia and live Borrelia burgdorferi, but not with either agent alone. Microscopy showed that several Toll-like receptors (TLRs) were upregulated in microglia upon B. burgdorferi exposure. It was hypothesized that the inflammatory milieu generated by microglia in the presence of B. burgdorferi results in neuronal apoptosis and that this inflammation was likely generated through TLR pathways.
  
  
  METHODS
  In this study, we explored the role of several TLR and nucleotide-binding oligomerization domain containing 2 (NOD2)-dependent pathways in inducing inflammation in the presence of B. burgdorferi, using ribonucleic acid interference (RNAi) and/or inhibitors, in primary non-human primate (NHP) microglia. We also used several inhibitors for key mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathways to determine the role of downstream pathways in inflammatory mediator release.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The results show that the TLR2 pathway plays a predominant role in inducing inflammation, as inhibition of TLR2 with either small interfering RNA (siRNA) or inhibitor, in the presence of B. burgdorferi, significantly downregulated interleukin 6 (IL-6), chemokine (C-X-C) motif ligand 8 (CXCL8), chemokine (C-C) motif ligand 2 (CCL2), and tumor necrosis factor (TNF) production. This was followed by TLR5, the silencing of which significantly downregulated IL-6 and TNF. The role of TLR4 was inconclusive as a TLR4-specific inhibitor and TLR4 siRNA had opposing effects in the presence of B. burgdorferi. Silencing of NOD2 by siRNA in the presence of B. burgdorferi significantly upregulated IL-6, CCL2, and TNF. Downstream signaling involved the adaptor molecule myeloid differentiation primary response 88 (MyD88), as expected, as well as the MAPK pathways, with extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) being predominant, followed by Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK) and p38 pathways.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Several receptors and pathways, with both positive and negative effects, mediate inflammation of primary microglia in response to B. burgdorferi, resulting in a complex, tightly regulated immune network.
authors.affiliation: Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, 18703, Three Rivers Road, Covington, LA, 70433, USA. gparthas@tulane.edu.
authors.forename: Geetha
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Parthasarathy
authors.affiliation: Division of Bacteriology and Parasitology, Tulane National Primate Research Center, Tulane University, 18703, Three Rivers Road, Covington, LA, 70433, USA. philipp@tulane.edu.
authors.forename: Mario T
authors.initials: MT
authors.lastname: Philipp
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D001898:Borrelia / Q000472:pathogenicity*; D002478:Cells, Cultured; D016207:Cytokines / Q000378:metabolism*; D004305:Dose-Response Relationship, Drug; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors / Q000494:pharmacology; D015964:Gene Expression Regulation, Bacterial / Q000502:physiology; D008253:Macaca mulatta; D017628:Microglia / Q000187:drug effects / Q000378:metabolism* / Q000382:microbiology*; D053473:Nod2 Signaling Adaptor Protein / Q000235:genetics / Q000378:metabolism; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering / Q000494:pharmacology; D015398:Signal Transduction / Q000187:drug effects / Q000502:physiology*; D051193:Toll-Like Receptors / Q000378:metabolism*
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines; D004791:Enzyme Inhibitors; D053473:Nod2 Signaling Adaptor Protein; D034741:RNA, Small Interfering; D051193:Toll-Like Receptors