Extrachromosomal and integrated genetic elements in Clostridium difficile.
Clostridium difficile is a major nosocomial pathogen, causing gastrointestinal disease in patients undergoing antibiotic therapy. This bacterium contains many extrachromosomal and integrated genetic elements, with recent genomic work giving new insights into their variability and distribution. This review summarises research conducted in this area over the last 30 years and includes a discussion on the functional contributions of these elements to host cell phenotypes, as well as encompassing recent genome sequencing studies that have contributed to our understanding of their evolution and dissemination. Importantly, we also include a review of antibiotic resistance determinants associated with mobile genetic elements since antibiotic use and the spread of antibiotic resistance are currently of significant global clinical importance.
Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
Jacob
J
Amy
Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia.
Priscilla
P
Johanesen
Department of Microbiology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria 3800, Australia. Electronic address: dena.lyras@monash.edu.
Dena
D
Lyras
D000818:Animals; D001483:Base Sequence; D016360:Clostridioides difficile / Q000187:drug effects / Q000235:genetics*; D003227:Conjugation, Genetic; D004251:DNA Transposable Elements; D004269:DNA, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics; D024881:Drug Resistance, Bacterial / Q000235:genetics*; D016680:Genome, Bacterial; D006801:Humans; D010957:Plasmids / Q000235:genetics; D017422:Sequence Analysis, DNA
D004251:DNA Transposable Elements; D004269:DNA, Bacterial
Clostridium difficile; Conjugation; Mobilisation; Phage; Plasmid; Transposon