A social gradient in fatal opioids and cocaine related overdoses?
BACKGROUND
To determine the existence of a social gradient in fatal overdose cases related to non-prescribed opioids and cocaine use, recorded in Luxembourg between 1994 and 2011.


METHODS
Overdose cases were individually matched with four controls in a nested case-control study design, according to sex, year of birth, drug administration route and duration of drug use. The study sample, composed of 272 cases and 1,056 controls, was stratified according to a Social Inequality Accumulation Score (SIAS), based on educational attainment, employment, income, financial situation of subjects and the professional status of their father or legal guardian. Least squares linear regression analysis on overdose mortality rates and ridit scores were applied to determine the Relative Index of Inequality (RII) of the study sample.


RESULTS
A negative linear relationship between the overdose mortality rate and the relative socioeconomic position was observed. We found a difference in mortality of 29.22 overdose deaths per 100 drug users in the lowest socioeconomic group compared to the most advantaged group. In terms of the Relative Inequality Index, the overdose mortality rate of opioid and cocaine users with lowest socioeconomic profiles was 9.88 times as high as that of their peers from the highest socioeconomic group (95% CI 6.49-13.26).


CONCLUSIONS
Our findings suggest the existence of a marked social gradient in opioids and cocaine related overdose fatalities. Harm reduction services should integrate socially supportive offers, not only because of their general aim of social (re)integration but crucially in order to meet their most important objective, that is to reduce drug-related mortality.
Drug Coordination Office, Ministry of Health, Luxembourg, Luxembourg; Research Unit INSIDE, Institute Health & Behaviour, University of Luxembourg, Walferdange, Luxembourg.
Alain
A
Origer
Research Unit INSIDE, Institute Health & Behaviour, University of Luxembourg, Walferdange, Luxembourg.
Etienne
E
Le Bihan
Research Unit INSIDE, Institute Health & Behaviour, University of Luxembourg, Walferdange, Luxembourg.
Michèle
M
Baumann
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D016022:Case-Control Studies; D003042:Cocaine / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000401:mortality*; D062787:Drug Overdose / Q000401:mortality*; D055030:Drug Users; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008189:Luxembourg / Q000453:epidemiology; D008297:Male; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000401:mortality*; D011159:Population Surveillance; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors
D000701:Analgesics, Opioid; D003042:Cocaine