Higher proportion of total and fat energy intake during the morning may reduce absolute intake of energy within the day. An observational study in free-living Japanese adults.
BACKGROUND
Although the distribution of energy intake throughout the day appears to impact overall daily energy intake, little is known about the ad libitum distribution of energy intake.


OBJECTIVE
Our aim was to investigate associations between the distribution of energy intake during the day and subsequent or overall energy intake, and food choice in free-living adults.


METHODS
A total of 119 women and 116 men completed 16-day semi-weighed dietary records. The longitudinal dietary intake data for each participant were analyzed using a mixed model to examine the effect of energy intake at various times of day on subsequent or overall energy intake.


RESULTS
Mean proportion of total energy intake in the morning (4:00 a.m.-10:29 a.m.), afternoon (10:30 a.m.-4:59 p.m.) and evening (5:00 p.m.-3:59 a.m.) meal was 22.6%, 33.8% and 43.6% in men, and 24.7%, 36.5%, 38.8% in women, respectively. Proportion of energy intake (%) in the morning meal was significantly and negatively associated with energy intake (kcal) in the subsequent afternoon and evening meals, and consequently in the whole day in both sexes. This significant and negative association was also observed for proportion of energy intake (%) of fat, but not of carbohydrate or protein, in both sexes. Proportion of energy intake (%) in the morning meal was negatively associated with overall energy intake (kcal) from the group of meats, fish, and eggs in both sexes, and from the group of confectioneries and soft drinks in women.


CONCLUSIONS
More energy in the morning meal may reduce energy intake, especially that from fat, in the subsequent meals, and consequently in the whole day.
Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, School of Public Health, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan.
Yukako
Y
Tani
Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, School of Public Health, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan; Interfaculty Initiative in Information Studies, Graduate School of Interdisciplinary Information Studies, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan.
Keiko
K
Asakura
Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, School of Public Health, The University of Tokyo, 7-3-1 Hongo, Bunkyo-ku, Tokyo 113-0033, Japan. Electronic address: stssasak@m.u-tokyo.ac.jp.
Satoshi
S
Sasaki
Graduate School of Health Science, Matsumoto University, Matsumoto, Nagano, Japan.
Naoko
N
Hirota
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, Tottori College, Tottori, Japan.
Akiko
A
Notsu
Department of Public Health and Hygiene, School of Medicine, University of the Ryukyus, Nakagami-gun, Okinawa, Japan.
Hidemi
H
Todoriki
Department of Health and Nutritional Sciences, Faculty of Health Promotional Sciences, Tokoha University, Hamamatsu, Shizuoka, Japan.
Ayako
A
Miura
Laboratory of Statistics, Osaka City University Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka, Japan.
Mitsuru
M
Fukui
Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Himeji, Hyogo, Japan.
Chigusa
C
Date
D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D062408:Breakfast; D015930:Diet Records; D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates / Q000008:administration & dosage; D004041:Dietary Fats / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D002149:Energy Intake / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D005502:Food; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D008137:Longitudinal Studies; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012737:Sex Factors; D013997:Time Factors
D004040:Dietary Carbohydrates; D004041:Dietary Fats
Circadian rhythms; Energy intake; Food choice; Macronutrients; Meal pattern; Timing