Depressive states amplify both upward and downward counterfactual thinking.
Depression has been linked to counterfactual thinking in many behavioral studies, but the direction of this effect remains disputed. In the current study, the relationship between depression and counterfactual thinking was examined using the event-related potential (ERP) technique. In a binary choice gambling task, outcome feedback of the chosen option and that of the alternative option were both provided, so as to elicit the process of counterfactual comparison. By investigating ERP signals in response to outcome presentation, we discovered that when the fictive outcome was better or worse than the factual outcome, the amplitude of the P3 component was positively correlated with individual levels of depression, but not levels of anxiety. These results indicate that depression strengthens both upward counterfactual thinking and downward counterfactual thinking. The implication of this finding to clinical research is discussed.
State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
Xue
X
Feng
Key Laboratory of Behavioral Science, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing 100101, China. Electronic address: gurl@psych.ac.cn.
Ruolei
R
Gu
Academic Administration Section, Tianjin Normal University, Tianjin 300387, China.
Fucheng
F
Liang
Department of Behavioral Science, University of Kentucky College of Medicine, Lexington, KY 40506, USA.
Lucas S
LS
Broster
State Key Laboratory of Cognitive Neuroscience and Learning, Beijing Normal University, Beijing 100875, China.
Yunzhe
Y
Liu
Institute of Affective and Social Neuroscience, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China.
Dandan
D
Zhang
Institute of Affective and Social Neuroscience, Shenzhen University, Shenzhen, 518060, China; Sichuan Research Center of Applied Psychology, Chengdu Medical College, Chengdu 610500, China.
Yue-jia
YJ
Luo
D002755:Choice Behavior / Q000502:physiology*; D003674:Defense Mechanisms; D003863:Depression / Q000503:physiopathology*; D004569:Electroencephalography; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D012649:Self Concept; D013223:Statistics as Topic; D013850:Thinking / Q000502:physiology*; D055815:Young Adult
Counterfactual thinking; Depression; Event-related potential; Outcome evaluation; P3