title: Prospective memory failures in aviation: effects of cue salience, workload, and individual differences.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Prospective memory allows people to complete intended tasks in the future. Prospective memory failures, such as pilots forgetting to inform pattern traffic of their locations, can have fatal consequences. The present research examined the impact of system factors (memory cue salience and workload) and individual differences (pilot age, cognitive health, and expertise) on prospective memory for communication tasks in the cockpit.
  
  
  METHODS
  Pilots (N = 101) flew a Cessna 172 simulator at a non-towered aerodrome while maintaining communication with traffic and attending to flight parameters. Memory cue salience (the prominence of cues that signal an intended action) and workload were manipulated. Prospective memory was measured as radio call completion rates.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Pilots' prospective memory was adversely affected by low-salience cues and high workload. An interaction of cue salience, pilots' age, and cognitive health reflected the effects of system and individual difference factors on prospective memory failures. For example, younger pilots with low levels of cognitive health completed 78% of the radio calls associated with low-salience memory cues, whereas older pilots with low cognitive health scores completed just 61% of similar radio calls.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our findings suggest that technologies designed to signal intended future tasks should target those tasks with inherently low-salience memory cues. In addition, increasing the salience of memory cues is most likely to benefit pilots with lower levels of cognitive health in high-workload conditions.
authors.forename: Kathleen D
authors.initials: KD
authors.lastname: Van Benthem
authors.forename: Chris M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Herdman
authors.forename: Rani G
authors.initials: RG
authors.lastname: Tolton
authors.forename: Jo-Anne
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: LeFevre
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000367:Age Factors; D000368:Aged; D000369:Aged, 80 and over; D001359:Aviation; D003198:Computer Simulation; D003463:Cues; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007206:Individuality; D008297:Male; D061212:Memory, Episodic; D008875:Middle Aged; D013647:Task Performance and Analysis; D016526:Workload