title: How important is drinking water exposure for the risks of engineered nanoparticles to consumers?
abstract: This study explored the potential for engineered nanoparticles (ENPs) to contaminate the UK drinking water supplies and established the significance of the drinking water exposure route compared to other routes of human exposure. A review of the occurrence and quantities of ENPs in different product types on the UK market as well as release scenarios, their possible fate and behaviour in raw water and during drinking water treatment was performed. Based on the available data, all the ENPs which are likely to reach water sources were identified and categorized. Worst case concentrations of ENPs in raw water and treated drinking water, using a simple exposure model, were estimated and then qualitatively compared to available estimates for human exposure through other routes. A range of metal, metal oxide and organic-based ENPs were identified that have the potential to contaminate drinking waters. Worst case predicted concentrations in drinking waters were in the low- to sub-µg/l range and more realistic estimates were tens of ng/l or less. For the majority of product types, human exposure via drinking water was predicted to be less important than exposure via other routes. The exceptions were some clothing materials, paints and coatings and cleaning products containing Ag, Al, TiO2, Fe2O3 ENPs and carbon-based materials.
authors.affiliation: a The Food & Environment Research Agency (Fera) , Sand Hutton , York , UK .
authors.forename: Karen
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Tiede
authors.affiliation: b Department of Environmental Engineering , Technical University of Denmark , Copenhagen , Denmark .
authors.forename: Steffen Foss
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Hanssen
authors.affiliation: c School of Sustainable Engineering and the Built Environment, Arizona State University , Tempe , AZ , USA .
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Westerhoff
authors.affiliation: d SAFENANO, Institute of Occupational Medicine , Edinburgh , UK .
authors.forename: Gordon J
authors.initials: GJ
authors.lastname: Fern
authors.affiliation: d SAFENANO, Institute of Occupational Medicine , Edinburgh , UK .
authors.forename: Steven M
authors.initials: SM
authors.lastname: Hankin
authors.affiliation: d SAFENANO, Institute of Occupational Medicine , Edinburgh , UK .|e IOM Singapore, Chevron House , Raffles Place , Singapore , and.
authors.forename: Robert J
authors.initials: RJ
authors.lastname: Aitken
authors.affiliation: a The Food & Environment Research Agency (Fera) , Sand Hutton , York , UK .
authors.forename: Qasim
authors.initials: Q
authors.lastname: Chaudhry
authors.affiliation: f Environment Department, University of York , York , UK.
authors.forename: Alistair B A
authors.initials: AB
authors.lastname: Boxall
mesh_terms: D060766:Drinking Water / Q000032:analysis*; D005818:Genetic Engineering; D006801:Humans; D053758:Nanoparticles / Q000633:toxicity*; D012306:Risk; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical / Q000633:toxicity*
chemical_list: D060766:Drinking Water; D014874:Water Pollutants, Chemical
keywords: Concentration; estimation; human health; market penetration; nanomaterials; release; surface water; waste water