title: Nasal and pulmonary vaccine delivery using particulate carriers.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Many human pathogens cause respiratory illness by colonizing and invading the respiratory mucosal surfaces. Preventing infection at local sites via mucosally active vaccines is a promising and rational approach for vaccine development. However, stimulating mucosal immunity is often challenging. Particulate adjuvants that can specifically target mucosal immune cells offer a promising opportunity to stimulate local immunity at the nasal and/or pulmonary mucosal surfaces.
  
  
  METHODS
  This review analyzes the common causes of respiratory infections, the challenges in the induction of mucosal and systemic responses and current pulmonary and nasal mucosal vaccination strategies. The ability of various particulate adjuvant formulations, including lipid-based particles, polymers and other particulate systems, to be effectively utilized for mucosal vaccine delivery is discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Induction of antibody and cell-mediated mucosal immunity that can effectively combat respiratory pathogens remains a challenge. Particulate delivery systems can be developed to target mucosal immune cells and effectively present antigen to evoke a rapid and long-term local immunity in the respiratory mucosa. In particular, particulate delivery systems offer the versatility of being formulated with multiple adjuvants and antigenic cargo, and can be tailored to effectively prime immune responses across the mucosal barrier. The opportunity for rational design of novel subunit particulate vaccines is emerging.
authors.affiliation: National Research Council of Canada-Human Health Therapeutics , Ottawa, Ontario K1A 0R6 , Canada +1 613 991 3210 ; Lakshmi.Krishnan@nrc-cnrc.gc.ca.
authors.forename: Yimei
authors.initials: Y
authors.lastname: Jia
authors.forename: Lakshmi
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Krishnan
authors.forename: Abdelwahab
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Omri
mesh_terms: D000276:Adjuvants, Immunologic / Q000008:administration & dosage; D000818:Animals; D000941:Antigens / Q000276:immunology; D016503:Drug Delivery Systems; D006801:Humans; D018928:Immunity, Mucosal / Q000276:immunology; D008168:Lung / Q000276:immunology; D009297:Nasal Mucosa / Q000276:immunology; D020545:Respiratory Mucosa / Q000276:immunology; D014611:Vaccination; D014612:Vaccines / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000276:immunology
chemical_list: D000276:Adjuvants, Immunologic; D000941:Antigens; D014612:Vaccines
keywords: adjuvant; formulation; immunogenicity; particles; particulate carrier systems; pulmonary delivery; respiratory infections; vaccines