title: Herbal diuretics in medieval Persian and Arabic medicine.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  In accord with the notions of humoralism that prevailed in medieval medicine, therapeutic interventions, including diuretics, were used to restore the disturbed balance among the four humors of the human body: blood, phlegm, yellow bile, and black bile. Most diuretics were derived from plants. The primary textual reference on herbal diuretics was Dioscorides's De Materia Medica, which was written during the first century CE.
  
  
  METHODS
  The authors reviewed the medieval medical texts written in Persian and Arabic and compiled a list of 135 herbal diuretics used by the medieval medical authorities for treating various ailments.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Between the 8th and 11th centuries CE, Middle Eastern physicians systematically reviewed extant books on medicine and pharmacotherapy and compiled new and expanded lists of herbal medicines, diuretics in particular. Furthermore, they introduced new chemical methods of extraction, distillation, and compounding in the use of herbal medicines.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Several herbal remedies now are considered as potentially safe and affordable alternatives to chemical pharmaceuticals. Thus, research on medieval herbal therapies may prove to be relevant to the practice of current cardiovascular and renal pharmacotherapy. The authors propose that modern research methods can be employed to determine which of these agents actually are effective as diuretics.
authors.affiliation: 1Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.|2Medical Philosophy and History Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.|3Section of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Children's of Alabama, Birmingham, AL.
authors.forename: Mohammadali M
authors.initials: MM
authors.lastname: Shoja
authors.affiliation: 3Section of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Children's of Alabama, Birmingham, AL.
authors.forename: R Shane
authors.initials: RS
authors.lastname: Tubbs
authors.affiliation: 3Section of Pediatric Neurosurgery, Children's of Alabama, Birmingham, AL.
authors.forename: Anand N
authors.initials: AN
authors.lastname: Bosmia
authors.affiliation: 1Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
authors.forename: Mohammad A A
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Fakhree
authors.affiliation: 1Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.|4Drug Applied Research Center and Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
authors.forename: Abolghasem
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Jouyban
authors.affiliation: 5UAB Historical Collection, Lister Hill Library, University of Alabama at Birmingham, Birmingham, AL.
authors.forename: Margaret Wood
authors.initials: MW
authors.lastname: Balch
authors.affiliation: 6Department of Anatomical Sciences, School of Medicine, St. George's University, Grenada, West Indies.
authors.forename: Marios
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Loukas
authors.affiliation: 1Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
authors.forename: Kazem
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Khodadoust
authors.affiliation: 1Tuberculosis and Lung Disease Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.|4Drug Applied Research Center and Faculty of Pharmacy, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
authors.forename: Majid
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Khalili
authors.affiliation: 7Renal Section, Department of Medicine, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX.
authors.forename: Garabed
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Eknoyan
mesh_terms: D004232:Diuretics / Q000266:history*; D004534:Egypt; D006115:Greece; D049691:History, Medieval; D006801:Humans; D008514:Medicine, Arabic / Q000266:history*; D019071:Persia; D008517:Phytotherapy / Q000266:history*; D010936:Plant Extracts / Q000266:history*
chemical_list: D004232:Diuretics; D010936:Plant Extracts