title: Field phenotyping of grapevine growth using dense stereo reconstruction.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The demand for high-throughput and objective phenotyping in plant research has been increasing during the last years due to large experimental sites. Sensor-based, non-invasive and automated processes are needed to overcome the phenotypic bottleneck, which limits data volumes on account of manual evaluations. A major challenge for sensor-based phenotyping in vineyards is the distinction between the grapevine in the foreground and the field in the background - this is especially the case for red-green-blue (RGB) images, where similar color distributions occur both in the foreground plant and in the field and background plants. However, RGB cameras are a suitable tool in the field because they provide high-resolution data at fast acquisition rates with robustness to outdoor illumination.
  
  
  RESULTS
  This study presents a method to segment the phenotypic classes 'leaf', 'stem', 'grape' and 'background' in RGB images that were taken with a standard consumer camera in vineyards. Background subtraction is achieved by taking two images of each plant for depth reconstruction. The color information is furthermore used to distinguish the leaves from stem and grapes in the foreground. The presented approach allows for objective computation of phenotypic traits like 3D leaf surface areas and fruit-to-leaf ratios. The method has been successfully applied to objective assessment of growth habits of new breeding lines. To this end, leaf areas of two breeding lines were monitored and compared with traditional cultivars. A statistical analysis of the method shows a significant (p <0.001) determination coefficient R (2)= 0.93 and root-mean-square error of 3.0%.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The presented approach allows for non-invasive, fast and objective assessment of plant growth. The main contributions of this study are 1) the robust segmentation of RGB images taken from a standard consumer camera directly in the field, 2) in particular, the robust background subtraction via reconstruction of dense depth maps, and 3) phenotypic applications to monitoring of plant growth and computation of fruit-to-leaf ratios in 3D. This advance provides a promising tool for high-throughput, automated image acquisition, e.g., for field robots.
authors.affiliation: Department of Informatics, Technische Universität München, Boltzmannstraße 3, 85748, Garching, Germany. klodt@tum.de.
authors.forename: Maria
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Klodt
authors.affiliation: Julius Kühn-Institute - Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Grapevine Breeding Geilweilerhof, 76833, Siebeldingen, Germany. katja.herzog@jki.bund.de.
authors.forename: Katja
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Herzog
authors.affiliation: Julius Kühn-Institute - Federal Research Centre for Cultivated Plants, Institute for Grapevine Breeding Geilweilerhof, 76833, Siebeldingen, Germany. Reinhard.toepfer@jki.bund.de.
authors.forename: Reinhard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Töpfer
authors.affiliation: Department of Informatics, Technische Universität München, Boltzmannstraße 3, 85748, Garching, Germany. cremers@tum.de.
authors.forename: Daniel
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Cremers
mesh_terms: D003116:Color; D005638:Fruit / Q000737:chemistry*; D007090:Image Interpretation, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D008027:Light; D015233:Models, Statistical; D010641:Phenotype; D018515:Plant Leaves / Q000737:chemistry*; D018547:Plant Stems / Q000737:chemistry*; D027843:Vitis / Q000737:chemistry* / Q000254:growth & development*