title: Brains, genes, and primates.
abstract: One of the great strengths of the mouse model is the wide array of genetic tools that have been developed. Striking examples include methods for directed modification of the genome, and for regulated expression or inactivation of genes. Within neuroscience, it is now routine to express reporter genes, neuronal activity indicators, and opsins in specific neuronal types in the mouse. However, there are considerable anatomical, physiological, cognitive, and behavioral differences between the mouse and the human that, in some areas of inquiry, limit the degree to which insights derived from the mouse can be applied to understanding human neurobiology. Several recent advances have now brought into reach the goal of applying these tools to understanding the primate brain. Here we describe these advances, consider their potential to advance our understanding of the human brain and brain disorders, discuss bioethical considerations, and describe what will be needed to move forward.
authors.affiliation: Gene Expression Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
authors.forename: Juan Carlos
authors.initials: JC
authors.lastname: Izpisua Belmonte
authors.affiliation: Systems Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
authors.forename: Edward M
authors.initials: EM
authors.lastname: Callaway
authors.affiliation: The Gatsby Charitable Foundation, The Peak, 5 Wilton Road, London SW1V 1AP, UK.
authors.forename: Sarah J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Caddick
authors.affiliation: Department of Philosophy, University of California, San Diego, 1500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
authors.forename: Patricia
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Churchland
authors.affiliation: Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 43 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA.
authors.forename: Guoping
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Feng
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesiology and Pharmacology and Department of Chemical Biology, University of Pittsburgh, 6060 Biomedical Science Tower 3, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
authors.forename: Gregg E
authors.initials: GE
authors.lastname: Homanics
authors.affiliation: Clayton Foundation Laboratories for Peptide Biology, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
authors.forename: Kuo-Fen
authors.initials: KF
authors.lastname: Lee
authors.affiliation: Section on Cognitive Neurophysiology and Imaging, Laboratory of Neuropsychology, National Institute of Mental Health, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20192, USA.
authors.forename: David A
authors.initials: DA
authors.lastname: Leopold
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychology and Neurosciences Graduate Program, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
authors.forename: Cory T
authors.initials: CT
authors.lastname: Miller
authors.affiliation: Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Meliora Hall, Box 270268, University of Rochester, Rochester, NY 14627-0268, USA.
authors.forename: Jude F
authors.initials: JF
authors.lastname: Mitchell
authors.affiliation: Center for Embryonic Cell and Gene Therapy, Oregon Health and Science University, 3303 S.W. Bond Avenue, Portland, OR 97239, USA; Division of Reproductive and Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, 505 N.W. 185th Avenue, Beaverton, OR 97006, USA.
authors.forename: Shoukhrat
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Mitalipov
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, Department of Pediatrics/Rady Children's Hospital San Diego, and Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Stem Cell Program, 9500 Gilman Drive, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
authors.forename: Alysson R
authors.initials: AR
authors.lastname: Moutri
authors.affiliation: Center for Neural Science, New York University, New York, NY 10003, USA.
authors.forename: J Anthony
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Movshon
authors.affiliation: Department of Physiology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo 160-8582, Japan; Laboratory for Marmoset Neural Architecture, Brain Science Institute RIKEN, 2-1 Hirosawa, Wako, Saitama 351-0198, Japan.
authors.forename: Hideyuki
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Okano
authors.affiliation: Systems Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA. Electronic address: reynolds@salk.edu.
authors.forename: John H
authors.initials: JH
authors.lastname: Reynolds
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurobiology and Department of Psychology, David Geffen School of Medicine, University of California, Los Angeles, Los Angeles, CA 92093, USA.
authors.forename: Dario
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Ringach
authors.affiliation: Computational Neurobiology Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
authors.forename: Terrence J
authors.initials: TJ
authors.lastname: Sejnowski
authors.affiliation: Laboratory of Functional and Molecular Imaging, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, 49 Convent Drive, MSC 1065, Building 49, Room 3A72, Bethesda, MD 20892-1065, USA.
authors.forename: Afonso C
authors.initials: AC
authors.lastname: Silva
authors.affiliation: Brain Institute and Center for the Neural Basis of Cognition, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; Department of Neurobiology, University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA; Research Service, Department of Veterans Affairs Medical Center, Pittsburgh, PA 15261, USA.
authors.forename: Peter L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Strick
authors.affiliation: Gene Expression Laboratory, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies, 10010 North Torrey Pines Road, La Jolla, CA 92037, USA.
authors.forename: Jun
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Wu
authors.affiliation: Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA; McGovern Institute for Brain Research at MIT, 43 Vassar Street, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 7 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Department of Biological Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, 7 Massachusetts Avenue, Cambridge, MA 02139, USA; Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of Harvard and MIT, 415 Main Street, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA.
authors.forename: Feng
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Zhang
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D005075:Biological Evolution; D001921:Brain / Q000502:physiology*; D005796:Genes; D006801:Humans; D051379:Mice; D008954:Models, Biological; D011323:Primates / Q000235:genetics*