title: MDMA, cannabis, and cocaine produce acute dissociative symptoms.
abstract: Some drugs of abuse may produce dissociative symptoms, but this aspect has been understudied. We explored the dissociative potential of three recreational drugs (3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA), cannabis, and cocaine) during intoxication and compared their effects to literature reports of dissociative states in various samples. Two placebo-controlled studies were conducted. In Study 1 (N=16), participants received single doses of 25, 50, and 100 mg of MDMA, and placebo. In Study 2 (N=21), cannabis (THC 300 µg/kg), cocaine (HCl 300 mg), and placebo were administered. Dissociative symptoms as measured with the Clinician-Administered Dissociative States Scale (CADSS) significantly increased under the influence of MDMA and cannabis. To a lesser extent, this was also true for cocaine. Dissociative symptoms following MDMA and cannabis largely exceeded those observed in schizophrenia patients, were comparable with those observed in Special Forces soldiers undergoing survival training, but were lower compared with ketamine-induced dissociation. Cocaine produced dissociative symptoms that were comparable with those observed in schizophrenia patients, but markedly less than those in Special Forces soldiers and ketamine users. Thus, MDMA and cannabis can produce dissociative symptoms that resemble dissociative pathology. The study of drug induced dissociation is important, because it may shed light on the mechanisms involved in dissociative psychopathology.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands; Nuffield Department of Clinical Neurosciences, University of Oxford, Oxford, United Kingdom. Electronic address: Dalena.vanheugten@ndcn.ox.ac.uk.
authors.forename: Dalena
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: van Heugten-Van der Kloet
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Timo
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Giesbrecht
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Janelle
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: van Wel
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Wendy M
authors.initials: WM
authors.lastname: Bosker
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Kim P C
authors.initials: KP
authors.lastname: Kuypers
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Eef L
authors.initials: EL
authors.lastname: Theunissen
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry (966), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Desirée B
authors.initials: DB
authors.lastname: Spronk
authors.affiliation: Department of Psychiatry (966), Radboud University Nijmegen Medical Centre, Nijmegen, The Netherlands; Donders Institute for Brain, Cognition and Behaviour, Radboud University Nijmegen, Nijmegen, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Robbert
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Jan Verkes
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Harald
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Merckelbach
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Psychology and Neuroscience, Maastricht University, The Netherlands.
authors.forename: Johannes G
authors.initials: JG
authors.lastname: Ramaekers
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D019969:Amphetamine-Related Disorders / Q000523:psychology*; D002186:Cannabinoids / Q000008:administration & dosage*; D003042:Cocaine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D019970:Cocaine-Related Disorders / Q000523:psychology*; D018592:Cross-Over Studies; D004213:Dissociative Disorders / Q000139:chemically induced* / Q000175:diagnosis / Q000523:psychology; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D002189:Marijuana Abuse / Q000523:psychology*; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine / Q000009:adverse effects*; D012559:Schizophrenia / Q000139:chemically induced; D011795:Surveys and Questionnaires
chemical_list: D002186:Cannabinoids; D003042:Cocaine; D018817:N-Methyl-3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine
keywords: Cannabis; Cocaine; Dissociative symptoms; Drugs of abuse; MDMA