title: Use of Urine Biomarkers to Assess Sodium Intake: Challenges and Opportunities.
abstract: This article summarizes current data and approaches to assess sodium intake in individuals and populations. A review of the literature on sodium excretion and intake estimation supports the continued use of 24-h urine collections for assessing population and individual sodium intake. Since 2000, 29 studies used urine biomarkers to estimate population sodium intake, primarily among adults. More than half used 24-h urine; the rest used a spot/casual, overnight, or 12-h specimen. Associations between individual sodium intake and health outcomes were investigated in 13 prospective cohort studies published since 2000. Only three included an indicator of long-term individual sodium intake, i.e., multiple 24-h urine specimens collected several days apart. Although not insurmountable, logistic challenges of 24-h urine collection remain a barrier for research on the relationship of sodium intake and chronic disease. Newer approaches, including modeling based on shorter collections, offer promise for estimating population sodium intake in some groups.
authors.affiliation: Division for Heart Disease and Stroke Prevention, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Atlanta, Georgia 30341; email: mcogswell@cdc.gov , bbowman@cdc.gov , spatel@cdc.gov.
authors.forename: Mary E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: Cogswell
authors.forename: Joyce
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Maalouf
authors.forename: Paul
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Elliott
authors.forename: Catherine M
authors.initials: CM
authors.lastname: Loria
authors.forename: Sheena
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Patel
authors.forename: Barbara A
authors.initials: BA
authors.lastname: Bowman
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D015415:Biomarkers / Q000652:urine*; D002648:Child; D002908:Chronic Disease; D002980:Climate; D015331:Cohort Studies; D004777:Environment; D015444:Exercise; D005260:Female; D006304:Health Status; D006801:Humans; D017736:Ion-Selective Electrodes; D008019:Life Style; D008297:Male; D009318:Natriuresis / Q000502:physiology; D017419:Potassium, Dietary / Q000008:administration & dosage; D011446:Prospective Studies; D012964:Sodium / Q000652:urine; D012982:Sodium, Dietary / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000652:urine
chemical_list: D015415:Biomarkers; D017419:Potassium, Dietary; D012982:Sodium, Dietary; D012964:Sodium
keywords: 24 h; balance; metabolism; overnight; spot; sweat