title: Increased incidence of nitroimidazole-refractory giardiasis at the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London: 2008-2013.
abstract: Giardia intestinalis is the commonest gastrointestinal protozoal pathogen worldwide, and causes acute and chronic diarrhoea with malabsorption. First-line treatment is with a nitroimidazole, with a reported efficacy rate of 89%. Failure of treatment can occur in patients with hypogammaglobulinaemia or human immunodeficiency virus (HIV), or be due to nitroimidazole-resistant organisms. There is little evidence to guide the clinical management of nitroimidazole-refractory disease. We performed a retrospective audit of nitroimidazole-refractory giardiasis in returned travellers at the Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London between 2011 and 2013. Seventy-three patients with microscopy-proven or PCR-proven giardiasis in whom nitroimidazole treatment had failed were identified, and their management was investigated. In 2008, nitroimidazole treatment failed in 15.1% of patients. This increased to 20.6% in 2011 and to 40.2% in 2013. Patient demographics remained stable during this period, as did routes of referral. Of patients with giardiasis, 39.0% had travelled to India; this rose to 69.9% in patients with nitroimidazole-refractory disease. Of the patients with refractory disease, 44.6% had HIV serological investigations performed and 36.5% had immunoglobulin levels determined. Patients with refractory disease were treated with various agents, including albendazole, nitazoxanide, and mepacrine, alone or in combination. All 20 patients who received a mepacrine-containing regimen were cured. This data shows a worrying increase in refractory disease, predominantly in travellers from India, which is likely to represent increasing nitroimidazole resistance. Improved tools for the diagnosis of resistant G. intestinalis are urgently needed to establish the true prevalence of nitroimidazole-resistant giardiasis, together with clinical trials to establish the most effective second-line agent for empirical treatment regimens.
authors.affiliation: The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK. Electronic address: laura.nabarro@nhs.net.
authors.forename: L E B
authors.initials: LE
authors.lastname: Nabarro
authors.affiliation: The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
authors.forename: R A
authors.initials: RA
authors.lastname: Lever
authors.affiliation: The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Armstrong
authors.affiliation: The Hospital for Tropical Diseases, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK.
authors.forename: P L
authors.initials: PL
authors.lastname: Chiodini
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D015766:Albendazole / Q000627:therapeutic use; D000981:Antiprotozoal Agents / Q000494:pharmacology* / Q000627:therapeutic use; D004351:Drug Resistance; D005260:Female; D016829:Giardia lamblia / Q000187:drug effects* / Q000302:isolation & purification*; D005873:Giardiasis / Q000188:drug therapy / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology*; D006761:Hospitals; D006801:Humans; D015994:Incidence; D008131:London / Q000453:epidemiology; D008297:Male; D009574:Nitro Compounds; D009593:Nitroimidazoles / Q000494:pharmacology*; D011796:Quinacrine / Q000627:therapeutic use; D012189:Retrospective Studies; D013844:Thiazoles / Q000627:therapeutic use; D014195:Travel; D017211:Treatment Failure
chemical_list: D000981:Antiprotozoal Agents; D009574:Nitro Compounds; D009593:Nitroimidazoles; D013844:Thiazoles; D015766:Albendazole; D011796:Quinacrine; C041747:nitazoxanide
keywords: Albendazole; Giardia intestinalis; India; giardiasis; mepacrine; nitroimidazole; refractory; resistance; travellers