title: Nerve localization techniques for peripheral nerve block and possible future directions.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Ultrasound guidance is now a standard nerve localization technique for peripheral nerve block (PNB). Ultrasonography allows simultaneous visualization of the target nerve, needle, local anesthetic injectate, and surrounding anatomical structures. Accurate deposition of local anesthetic next to the nerve is essential to the success of the nerve block procedure. Due to limitations in the visibility of both needle tip and nerve surface, the precise relationship between needle tip and target nerve is unknown at the moment of injection. Importantly, nerve injury may result both from an inappropriately placed needle tip and inappropriately placed local anesthetic. The relationship between the block needle tip and target nerve is of paramount importance to the safe conduct of peripheral nerve block.
  
  
  METHODS
  This review summarizes the evolution of nerve localization in regional anesthesia, characterizes a problem faced by clinicians in performing ultrasound-guided nerve block, and explores the potential technological solutions to this problem.
  
  
  RESULTS
  To date, technology newly applied to PNB includes real-time 3D imaging, multi-planar magnetic needle guidance, and in-line injection pressure monitoring. This review postulates that optical reflectance spectroscopy and bioimpedance may allow for accurate identification of the relationship between needle tip and target nerve, currently a high priority deficit in PNB techniques.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Until it is known how best to define the relationship between needle and nerve at the moment of injection, some common sense principles are suggested.
authors.affiliation: Sensing and Separation Group, Chemistry Department and Life Science Interface Group, Tyndall National Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: L
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Helen
authors.affiliation: Department of Anesthesia, Cork University Hospital & ASSERT for Health Centre, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: B D
authors.initials: BD
authors.lastname: O'Donnell
authors.affiliation: Sensing and Separation Group, Chemistry Department and Life Science Interface Group, Tyndall National Institute, University College Cork, Cork, Ireland.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Moore
mesh_terms: D006801:Humans; D009407:Nerve Block / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends; D010525:Peripheral Nerves / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000187:drug effects; D018084:Ultrasonography, Interventional / Q000379:methods* / Q000639:trends