title: Income Inequality and Use of Dental Services in 66 Countries.
abstract: This study explored the association between income inequality and use of dental services and the role that investment in health care plays in explaining that association. We pooled individual-level data from 223,299 adults, 18 years or older, in 66 countries, who participated in the World Health Organization (WHO) World Health Surveys with country-level data from different international sources. Income inequality was measured at the national level using the Gini coefficient, and use of dental services was defined as having received treatment to address problems with mouth and/or teeth in the past year. The association between the Gini coefficient and use of dental services was examined in multilevel models controlling for a standard set of individual- and country-level confounders. The individual and joint contributions of 4 indicators of investment in health care were evaluated in sequential modeling. The Gini coefficient and use of dental services were inversely associated after adjustment for confounders. Every 10% increase in the Gini coefficient corresponded with a 15% lower odds of using dental services (odds ratio: 0.85; 95% confidence interval: 0.70-0.99). The association between the Gini coefficient and use of dental services was attenuated and became nonsignificant after individual adjustment for total health expenditure, public expenditure on health, health system responsiveness, or type of dental health system. The 4 indicators together explained 80% of the association between the Gini coefficient and use of dental services. This study suggests that more equal countries have greater use of dental services. It also supports the mediating role of investment in health care in explaining that association.
authors.affiliation: Division of Population and Patient Health, King's College London Dental Institute at Guy's, King's College and St. Thomas' Hospitals, London, UK bishal.bhandari@kcl.ac.uk.
authors.forename: B
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Bhandari
authors.affiliation: Division of Population and Patient Health, King's College London Dental Institute at Guy's, King's College and St. Thomas' Hospitals, London, UK.
authors.forename: J T
authors.initials: JT
authors.lastname: Newton
authors.affiliation: Division of Population and Patient Health, King's College London Dental Institute at Guy's, King's College and St. Thomas' Hospitals, London, UK.
authors.forename: E
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Bernabé
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D003729:Dental Care / Q000191:economics* / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D005260:Female; D005102:Health Expenditures; D006297:Health Services Accessibility / Q000191:economics; D006306:Health Surveys; D006801:Humans; D007182:Income / Q000706:statistics & numerical data*; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D064890:Social Determinants of Health; D012959:Socioeconomic Factors; D014944:World Health Organization
keywords: health expenditures; health services accessibility; multilevel analysis; social determinants of health; socioeconomic factors; utilization