title: The orthopedic diseases of ancient Egypt.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  CT scanning of ancient human remains has the potential to provide insights into health and diseases. While Egyptian mummies have undergone CT scans in prior studies, a systematic survey of the orthopedic conditions afflicting a group of these ancient individuals has never been carried out.
  
  
  METHODS
  We performed whole body CT scanning on 52 ancient Egyptian mummies using technique comparable to that of medical imaging. All of the large joints and the spine were systematically examined and osteoarthritic (OA) changes were scored 0-4 using Kellgren and Lawrence classification.
  
  
  RESULTS
  The cruciate ligaments and menisci could be identified frequently. There were much more frequent OA changes in the spine (25 mummies) than in the large joints (15 cases of acromioclavicular and/or glenohumeral joint OA changes, five involvement of the ankle, one in the elbow, four in the knee, and one in the hip). There were six cases of scoliosis. Individual mummies had the following conditions: juvenile aseptic necrosis of the hip (Perthes disease), stage 4 osteochondritis dissecans of the knee, vertebral compression fracture, lateral patella-femoral joint hyper-compression syndrome, severe rotator cuff arthropathy, rotator cuff impingement, hip pincer impingement, and combined fracture of the greater trochantor and vertebral bodies indicating obvious traumatic injury. This report includes the most ancient discovery of several of these syndromes.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Ancient Egyptians often suffered painful orthopedic conditions. The high frequency of scoliosis merits further study. The pattern of degenerative changes in the spine and joints may offer insights into activity levels of these people.
authors.affiliation: Orthopädische Chirurgie Bayreuth, Parsifalstr.5, Bayreuth, Germany.
authors.forename: Klaus O
authors.initials: KO
authors.lastname: Fritsch
authors.affiliation: Al-Azhar University School of Medicine, Naser City, Cairo, Egypt.
authors.forename: Heshem
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Hamoud
authors.affiliation: Al-Azhar University School of Medicine, Naser City, Cairo, Egypt.
authors.forename: Adel H
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Allam
authors.affiliation: Radiologie Im Duererhof, Bayreuth, Germany.
authors.forename: Alexander
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Grossmann
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Archaeology and Tourism Guidance, Misr University for Science and Technology, Misr University for Science & Technology, Al-Motamayez District, 6th of October City, Egypt.
authors.forename: Abdel-Halim
authors.initials: AH
authors.lastname: Nur El-Din
authors.affiliation: Conservation Centre for Archaeological and Historical Buildings and Museum Artifacts, Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University Giza, Egypt.
authors.forename: Gomaa
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Abdel-Maksoud
authors.affiliation: Biological Anthropology Dept., Medical Research Division, NRC, El-Behooth St. Dokki, Giza, Egypt.
authors.forename: Muhammad Al-Tohamy
authors.initials: MA
authors.lastname: Soliman
authors.affiliation: High Institute for Tourism & Hotels Alexandria Abu Qir, Egypt.
authors.forename: Ibrahim
authors.initials: I
authors.lastname: Badr
authors.affiliation: South Coast Radiologic Medical Group, Laguna Hills, California.
authors.forename: James D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Sutherland
authors.affiliation: Newport Diagnostic Center, Newport Beach, California.
authors.forename: M Linda
authors.initials: ML
authors.lastname: Sutherland
authors.affiliation: Conservation Centre for Archaeological and Historical Buildings and Museum Artifacts, Conservation Department, Faculty of Archaeology, Cairo University Giza, Egypt.
authors.forename: Mahmoud
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Akl
authors.affiliation: Davis School of Gerontology, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California.
authors.forename: Caleb E
authors.initials: CE
authors.lastname: Finch
authors.affiliation: Memorial Care Heart & Vascular Institute, Long Beach Memorial, Long Beach, California.
authors.forename: Gregory S
authors.initials: GS
authors.lastname: Thomas
authors.affiliation: Columbia St. Mary's Healthcare, Milwaukee, Wisconsin.
authors.forename: L Samuel
authors.initials: LS
authors.lastname: Wann
authors.affiliation: Saint Luke's Mid America Heart Institute, Kansas City, Missouri.|University of Missouri-Kansas City School of Medicine, Kansas City, Missouri.
authors.forename: Randall C
authors.initials: RC
authors.lastname: Thompson
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D000076144:Egypt, Ancient; D005260:Female; D049690:History, Ancient; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009106:Mummies / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000266:history; D010003:Osteoarthritis / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000266:history; D011859:Radiography; D012600:Scoliosis / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000266:history; D013131:Spine / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D055815:Young Adult
keywords: CT scanning; ancient Egypt mummies; orthopedic conditions