title: Ovarian and oocyte targets for development of female contraceptives.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Steroid hormone-based contraceptives have been used by women for long time since their introduction. Efforts have been made to make steroidal contraceptives cost-effective, safe and improve their users' compliance. In addition, attempts have been made to develop nonsteroidal contraceptives. Contraceptive vaccines have been investigated as an alternate strategy for contraception.
  
  
  METHODS
  The currently used steroidal contraceptives are reviewed. In addition, status of emerging nonsteroidal contraceptives that inhibit folliculogenesis, oocyte maturation, ovulation and endometrium receptivity targeting phosphodiesterase 3, angiopoietins, gonadotropin-releasing hormone, COX-2, progesterone/estrogen receptor and follicle-stimulating hormone receptor are presented. Various approaches to develop contraceptive vaccines aiming to inhibit ovarian follicle development, ovulation, fertilization and implantation including their current applications and limitations are discussed.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Development of new nonsteroidal contraceptives, in addition to long-acting steroidal contraceptives, is pertinent for offering wider choice to women. It is imperative that basic research to discover new targets in the ovaries must be undertaken to facilitate development of novel contraceptives. Further, efforts on studying the feasibility and safety of contraceptive vaccines may be continued to bring these within the realm of application as contraceptives for humans.
authors.affiliation: a 1 National Institute of Immunology, Reproductive Cell Biology Lab , Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi-110 067, India +011 26741249 ; skgupta@nii.ac.in.
authors.forename: Satish Kumar
authors.initials: SK
authors.lastname: Gupta
authors.affiliation: b 2 National Institute of Immunology, Reproductive Cell Biology Lab , Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi-110 067, India.
authors.forename: Ankita
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Malik
authors.affiliation: c 3 National Institute of Immunology, Reproductive Cell Biology Lab , Aruna Asaf Ali Marg, New Delhi-110 067, India.
authors.forename: Ananta Prasad
authors.initials: AP
authors.lastname: Arukha
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003271:Contraceptive Agents, Female / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology; D015195:Drug Design; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D009865:Oocytes / Q000378:metabolism; D010053:Ovary / Q000378:metabolism; D022642:Vaccines, Contraceptive / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000009:adverse effects / Q000494:pharmacology
chemical_list: D003271:Contraceptive Agents, Female; D022642:Vaccines, Contraceptive
keywords: COX-2 inhibitor; PDE3 inhibitor; anti-angiogenic agent; contraceptive vaccines; estrogen receptor modulator; follicle-stimulating hormone receptor; gonadotropin-releasing hormone; human chorionic gonadotropin; progesterone receptor modulator; steroid hormone-based contraceptives; zona pellucida