title: Developments in the role of transcranial sonography for the differential diagnosis of parkinsonism.
abstract: In the last two decades transcranial sonography (TCS) has developed as a valuable, supplementary tool in the diagnosis and differential diagnosis of movement disorders. In this review, we highlight recent evidence supporting TCS as a reliable method in the differential diagnosis of parkinsonism, combining substantia nigra (SN), basal ganglia and ventricular system findings. Moreover, several studies support SN hyperechogenicity as one of most important risk factors for Parkinson's disease (PD). The advantages of TCS include short investigation time, low cost and lack of radiation. Principal limitations are still the dependency on the bone window and operator experience. New automated algorithms may reduce the role of investigator skill in the assessment and interpretation, increasing TCS diagnostic reliability. Based on the convincing evidence available, the EFNS accredited the method of TCS a level A recommendation for supporting the diagnosis of PD and its differential diagnosis from secondary and atypical parkinsonism. An increasing number of training programmes is extending the use of this technique in clinical practice.
authors.affiliation: Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Andrea
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Pilotto
authors.forename: Rezzak
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Yilmaz
authors.forename: Daniela
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Berg
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D003937:Diagnosis, Differential; D020329:Essential Tremor / Q000175:diagnosis; D006801:Humans; D010300:Parkinson Disease / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging* / Q000209:etiology; D012307:Risk Factors; D017585:Ultrasonography, Doppler, Transcranial