title: The immunomodulatory effects of fish-oil supplementation in elite paddlers: A pilot randomized double blind placebo-controlled trial.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Physical exercise can induce imbalance of different cytokines by leading them towards an inflammatory and immunosuppressive milieu. Fish-oil (FO) supplementation may modulate the mentioned skewed balance following intense exercise. Therefore, we decided to investigate the effect of intense physical exercise and FO supplementation on cytokine production and helper T (Th) cell phenotype in male elite paddlers.
  
  
  METHODS
  Male elite paddlers consumed 6 g/day of either FO capsules (n=11) containing 3.6 g long chain n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (1.2 g docosahexaenoic acid and 2.4 g eicosapentaenoic acid) or placebo capsules (n=11) for 4 weeks. The paddlers simultaneously undertook a program of increasing exercise. Blood samples were taken from all the subjects 48 h before and after the 4 weeks of supplementation.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Our results show that while FO supplementation decreases the production of tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α and interleukin (IL)-1β in the elite paddlers, it increases the production of IL-6. On the other hand, while there was no change in IL-4 secretion, the production of interferon (IFN)-γ was significantly decreased after 4 weeks FO consumption. We also showed that the production of IL-10 was significantly higher in the FO group compared to the placebo. Finally, we found that fish-oil consumption shifts the balance between Th cells towards Th2 phenotype during intensive exercise.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results suggest that the consumption of n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids during intense exercise can induce the anti-inflammatory and immunosuppressive cytokine networks that are associated with a reduced Th1/Th2 ratio in elite paddlers.
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, University of Tehran, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Maryam
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Delfan
authors.affiliation: Faculty of Physical Education and Sport Sciences, Shahid Beheshti University, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Khosro
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Ebrahim
authors.affiliation: Physical Education and Sport Sciences Department, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Fatemeh
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Baesi
authors.affiliation: Physical Education and Sport Sciences Department, Faculty of Humanities, Tarbiat Modares University, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Zahra
authors.initials: Z
authors.lastname: Mirakhori
authors.affiliation: Cellular and Molecular Research Center, Yasuj University of Medical Sciences, Yasuj, Iran.
authors.forename: Ghasem
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Ghalamfarsa
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Peyman
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Bakhshaei
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran; Department of Cellular and Molecular Nutrition, School of Nutritional Sciences and Dietetics, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Ali Akbar
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Saboor-Yaraghi
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.
authors.forename: Alireza
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Razavi
authors.affiliation: Biology Department, School of Sciences, Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran.
authors.forename: Maryam
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Setayesh
authors.affiliation: Immunology Research Center, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran; Department of Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, Tabriz University of Medical Sciences, Tabriz, Iran.
authors.forename: Mehdi
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Yousefi
authors.affiliation: Department of Immunology, School of Public Health, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran. Electronic address: f-jadidin@razi.tums.ac.ir.
authors.forename: Farhad
authors.initials: F
authors.lastname: Jadidi-Niaragh
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D016207:Cytokines / Q000097:blood; D019587:Dietary Supplements; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000276:immunology*; D004311:Double-Blind Method; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid / Q000008:administration & dosage* / Q000276:immunology*; D015444:Exercise; D006801:Humans; D007249:Inflammation / Q000378:metabolism; D007492:Iran; D008297:Male; D010865:Pilot Projects; D064133:Sports Nutritional Physiological Phenomena; D018417:Th1 Cells / Q000378:metabolism; D018418:Th2 Cells / Q000378:metabolism; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D016207:Cytokines; D004281:Docosahexaenoic Acids; D015118:Eicosapentaenoic Acid
keywords: Cytokine; Exercise; Fish-oil; Immunology; Inflammation; Omega-3 fatty acids