title: Pharmaceutical Opioid Use and Dependence among People Living with Chronic Pain: Associations Observed within the Pain and Opioids in Treatment (POINT) Cohort.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  There is increasing concern about the appropriateness of prescribing pharmaceutical opioids for chronic non-cancer pain (CNCP), given the risks of problematic use and dependence. This article examines pharmaceutical opioid dose and dependence and examines the correlates of each.
  
  
  METHODS
  Baseline data were obtained from a national sample of 1,424 people across Australia (median 58 years, 55% female and experiencing pain for a median of 10 years), who had been prescribed opioids for CNCP. Current opioid consumption was estimated in oral morphine equivalent (OME; mg per day), and ICD-10 pharmaceutical opioid dependence was assessed using the Composite International Diagnostic Interview.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Current opioid consumption varied widely: 8.8% were taking <20 mg OME per day, 52.1% were taking 21-90 mg OME, 24.3% were taking 91-199 mg OME, and 14.8% were taking >= 200 mg OME. Greater daily OME consumption was associated with higher odds of multiple physical and mental health issues, aberrant opioid use, problems associated with opioid medication and opioid dependence. A significant minority, 8.5%, met criteria for lifetime ICD-10 pharmaceutical opioid dependence and 4.7% met criteria for past year ICD-10 pharmaceutical opioid dependence. Multivariate analysis found past-year dependence was independently associated with being younger, exhibiting more aberrant behaviors and having a history of benzodiazepine dependence.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  In this population of people taking opioids for CNCP, consumption of higher doses was associated with increased risk of problematic behaviors, and was more likely among people with a complex profile of physical and mental health problems.
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: Gabrielle
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Campbell
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: Suzanne
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Nielsen
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: Briony
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Larance
authors.affiliation: School of Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, Tasmania, Australia.
authors.forename: Raimondo
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Bruno
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: Richard
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Mattick
authors.affiliation: Centre for Youth Substance Abuse Research, University of Queensland, Herston, Queensland, Australia.|National Addiction Centre, Kings College, London, England.
authors.forename: Wayne
authors.initials: W
authors.lastname: Hall
authors.affiliation: Sydney Medical School, Sydney University, Herston, Queensland, Australia.|The Langton Centre, South East Sydney Local Health District (SESLHD) Drug and Alcohol Services, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: Nicholas
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Lintzeris
authors.affiliation: St Vincent's Clinical School, UNSW Medicine, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: Milton
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Cohen
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.
authors.forename: Kimberley
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: National Drug and Alcohol Research Centre, UNSW, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia.|School of Population and Global Health, University of Melbourne, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.|Murdoch Children's Research Institute, Australia.|Department of Global Health, School of Public Health, University of Washington, Washington, USA.
authors.forename: Louisa
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Degenhardt
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D000701:Analgesics, Opioid / Q000627:therapeutic use*; D001315:Australia / Q000453:epidemiology; D059350:Chronic Pain / Q000188:drug therapy*; D015331:Cohort Studies; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009293:Opioid-Related Disorders / Q000453:epidemiology*; D012307:Risk Factors; D055815:Young Adult
chemical_list: D000701:Analgesics, Opioid
keywords: Chronic Pain; Dependence; Opioids