title: Longitudinal associations between lifestyle and vitamin D: A general population study with repeated vitamin D measurements.
abstract: Several lifestyle factors have been found to be associated with vitamin D status in cross-sectional studies, but it is not clear whether a change in these factors can actually affect the vitamin D level. We investigated the association between repeated measurements of physical activity, body mass index (BMI), diet, alcohol consumption, and smoking habits, and corresponding levels of vitamin D during 5 years of follow-up of a large general population sample. We included 4185 persons who participated and had vitamin D (serum-25-hydroxyvitamin D, 25-OH-D) measurements in the Inter99 study at baseline (1999-2001) and 5-year follow-up. In a subsample, 25-OH-D was also measured at 1- and 3-year follow-ups. We used mixed models to examine the association between repeated measurements of lifestyle factors and 25-OH-D levels. In multivariable analyses of repeated measurements, the difference in 25-OH-D was -0.32 ng/ml (95 % CI -0.37, -0.28) per 1 kg/m(2) increase in BMI; 4.50 ng/ml (95 % CI 3.84, 5.15) for persons moderately/vigorously physically active versus sedentary; 1.82 ng/ml (95 % CI 1.09, 2.56) for persons with healthy versus unhealthy dietary habits; 0.05 ng/ml (95 % CI 0.03, 0.07) per 1 standard drink/weak increase in alcohol consumption; and 0.86 ng/ml (95 % CI 0.36, 1.35) for never smokers versus daily smokers. Our study shows that lower BMI, a higher level of physical activity, a healthier diet and possibly a higher alcohol intake, and not smoking, are associated with higher 25-OH-D levels.
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Prevention and Health, Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark. tea.skaaby.01@regionh.dk.
authors.forename: Tea
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Skaaby
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Prevention and Health, Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.
authors.forename: Lise Lotte Nystrup
authors.initials: LL
authors.lastname: Husemoen
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Prevention and Health, Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.
authors.forename: Betina Heinsbæk
authors.initials: BH
authors.lastname: Thuesen
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Prevention and Health, Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.
authors.forename: Charlotta
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Pisinger
authors.affiliation: Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Laboratory Medicine, University Medicine Greifswald, Greifswald, Germany.
authors.forename: Anke
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Hannemann
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Prevention and Health, Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.|Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.|Faculty of Medicine, Alborg University, Aalborg, Denmark.
authors.forename: Torben
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Jørgensen
authors.affiliation: Research Centre for Prevention and Health, Capital Region of Denmark, Copenhagen, Denmark.|Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark.|Department of Clinical Experimental Research, Rigshospitalet, Glostrup, Denmark.
authors.forename: Allan
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Linneberg
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000428:Alcohol Drinking / Q000097:blood*; D004032:Diet; D015444:Exercise / Q000502:physiology*; D005260:Female; D005500:Follow-Up Studies; D006306:Health Surveys; D006801:Humans; D008019:Life Style; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D012907:Smoking / Q000097:blood*; D014807:Vitamin D / Q000031:analogs & derivatives* / Q000097:blood
chemical_list: D014807:Vitamin D; C104450:25-hydroxyvitamin D
keywords: Alcohol; Diet; Obesity; Physical activity; Smoking; Vitamin D