title: Geographic comparison of plant genera used in frugivory among the pitheciids Cacajao, Callicebus, Chiropotes, and Pithecia.
abstract: Pitheciids are known for their frugivorous diets, but there has been no broad-scale comparison of fruit genera used by these primates that range across five geographic regions in South America. We compiled 31 fruit lists from data collected from 18 species (three Cacajao, six Callicebus, five Chiropotes, and four Pithecia) at 26 study sites in six countries. Together, these lists contained 455 plant genera from 96 families. We predicted that 1) closely related Chiropotes and Cacajao would demonstrate the greatest similarity in fruit lists; 2) pitheciids living in closer geographic proximity would have greater similarities in fruit lists; and 3) fruit genus richness would be lower in lists from forest fragments than continuous forests. Fruit genus richness was greatest for the composite Chiropotes list, even though Pithecia had the greatest overall sampling effort. We also found that the Callicebus composite fruit list had lower similarity scores in comparison with the composite food lists of the other three genera (both within and between geographic areas). Chiropotes and Pithecia showed strongest similarities in fruit lists, followed by sister taxa Chiropotes and Cacajao. Overall, pitheciids in closer proximity had more similarities in their fruit list, and this pattern was evident in the fruit lists for both Callicebus and Chiropotes. There was no difference in the number of fruit genera used by pitheciids in habitat fragments and continuous forest. Our findings demonstrate that pitheciids use a variety of fruit genera, but phylogenetic and geographic patterns in fruit use are not consistent across all pitheciid genera. This study represents the most extensive examination of pitheciid fruit consumption to date, but future research is needed to investigate the extent to which the trends in fruit genus richness noted here are attributable to habitat differences among study sites, differences in feeding ecology, or a combination of both.
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee.
authors.forename: Sarah A
authors.initials: SA
authors.lastname: Boyle
authors.affiliation: Department of Biomedical Sciences, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan.
authors.forename: Cynthia L
authors.initials: CL
authors.lastname: Thompson
authors.affiliation: Smithsonian-Mason School of Conservation, Front Royal, Virginia.
authors.forename: Anneke
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Deluycker
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland.
authors.forename: Silvia J
authors.initials: SJ
authors.lastname: Alvarez
authors.affiliation: Research Support Foundation, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Jataí, Goiás, Brazil.
authors.forename: Thiago H G
authors.initials: TH
authors.lastname: Alvim
authors.affiliation: Universidad Nacional Mayor de San Marcos, Lima, Peru.
authors.forename: Rolando
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Aquino
authors.affiliation: Department of Zoology, Universidade Federal de Pernambuco, Recife, Pernambuco, Brazil.
authors.forename: Bruna M
authors.initials: BM
authors.lastname: Bezerra
authors.affiliation: University of Salford, Manchester, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Jean P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Boubli
authors.affiliation: San Diego Zoo Global Institute for Conservation Research, San Diego, California.
authors.forename: Mark
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Bowler
authors.affiliation: Department of Biological Sciences, Universidade Estadual de Santa Cruz, Ilhéus, Bahia, Brazil.
authors.forename: Christini Barbosa
authors.initials: CB
authors.lastname: Caselli
authors.affiliation: Department of Systematics and Ecology, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.
authors.forename: Renata R D
authors.initials: RR
authors.lastname: Chagas
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil.
authors.forename: Stephen F
authors.initials: SF
authors.lastname: Ferrari
authors.affiliation: Municipal Environment Secretariat, Aracaju, Sergipe, Brazil.
authors.forename: Isadora P
authors.initials: IP
authors.lastname: Fontes
authors.affiliation: Center for Conservation Education and Sustainability, Smithsonian Conservation Biology Institute, National Zoological Park, Washington, DC.
authors.forename: Tremaine
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Gregory
authors.affiliation: Department of Ecology and Natural Resource Management, Norwegian University of Life Sciences, Ås, Norway.
authors.forename: Torbjørn
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Haugaasen
authors.affiliation: Deutsches Primatenzentrum, Göttingen, Germany.
authors.forename: Stefanie
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Heiduck
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, Southern Illinois University, Carbondale, Illinois.
authors.forename: Rose
authors.initials: R
authors.lastname: Hores
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, University of Toronto, Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
authors.forename: Shawn
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Lehman
authors.affiliation: Biological Sciences Program, Universidade Federal de Goiás, Jataí, Goiás, Brazil.
authors.forename: Fabiano R de
authors.initials: FR
authors.lastname: Melo
authors.affiliation: Center of Ecological and Environmental Education Studies, Carangola, Minas Gerais, Brazil.
authors.forename: Leandro S
authors.initials: LS
authors.lastname: Moreira
authors.affiliation: Program in Ecology and Conservation, Universidade Federal de Sergipe, São Cristóvão, Sergipe, Brazil.
authors.forename: Viviane S
authors.initials: VS
authors.lastname: Moura
authors.affiliation: Biology Institute, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: Mariana B
authors.initials: MB
authors.lastname: Nagy-Reis
authors.affiliation: Conservation International Colombia, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
authors.forename: Erwin
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Palacios
authors.affiliation: RESOLVE, Washington, DC.
authors.forename: Suzanne
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Palminteri
authors.affiliation: School of Environmental Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom.
authors.forename: Carlos A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Peres
authors.affiliation: National Center for Amazonian Biodiversity Research and Conservation, Chico Mendes Institute for Biodiversity Conservation, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil.
authors.forename: Liliam
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Pinto
authors.affiliation: São Paulo Forestry Institute, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: Marcio
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Port-Carvalho
authors.affiliation: Conservation International Colombia, Bogotá D.C., Colombia.
authors.forename: Adriana
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Rodríguez
authors.affiliation: Centre for Agrarian and Environmental Sciences, Universidade Federal de Maranhão, Chapadinha, Maranhão, Brazil.|Center for Geospatial Research, University of Georgia, Athens, Georgia.
authors.forename: Ricardo R dos
authors.initials: RR
authors.lastname: Santos
authors.affiliation: Biology Institute, Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil.
authors.forename: Eleonore Z F
authors.initials: EZ
authors.lastname: Setz
authors.affiliation: Department of Anthropology, Grand Valley State University, Allendale, Michigan.
authors.forename: Christopher A
authors.initials: CA
authors.lastname: Shaffer
authors.affiliation: Mamirauá Institute for Sustainable Development, Tefé, Amazonas, Brazil.
authors.forename: Felipe Ennes
authors.initials: FE
authors.lastname: Silva
authors.affiliation: Program in Zoology, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
authors.forename: Rafaela F Soares da
authors.initials: RF
authors.lastname: Silva
authors.affiliation: Department of Systematics and Ecology, Universidade Federal da Paraíba, João Pessoa, Paraíba, Brazil.
authors.forename: João P
authors.initials: JP
authors.lastname: Souza-Alves
authors.affiliation: Department of Zoology, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
authors.forename: Leonardo C
authors.initials: LC
authors.lastname: Trevelin
authors.affiliation: Department of Zoology, Museu Paraense Emilio Goeldi, Belém, Pará, Brazil.
authors.forename: Liza M
authors.initials: LM
authors.lastname: Veiga
authors.affiliation: Mamirauá Institute for Sustainable Development, Tefé, Amazonas, Brazil.
authors.forename: Tatiana M
authors.initials: TM
authors.lastname: Vieira
authors.affiliation: Department of Biology, Rhodes College, Memphis, Tennessee.
authors.forename: Mary E
authors.initials: ME
authors.lastname: DuBose
authors.affiliation: Biodiversity Unit, National Institute for Amazonian Research, Manaus, Amazonas, Brazil.
authors.forename: Adrian A
authors.initials: AA
authors.lastname: Barnett
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D004032:Diet / Q000662:veterinary*; D017753:Ecosystem; D065928:Forests; D005638:Fruit / Q000145:classification*; D005843:Geography; D060434:Herbivory; D058974:Phylogeography; D053820:Pitheciidae / Q000502:physiology*; D010944:Plants / Q000145:classification*
keywords: bearded saki; diet; saki; titi; uacari