title: Adaptive image inversion of contrast 3D echocardiography for enabling automated analysis.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Contrast 3D echocardiography (C3DE) is commonly used to enhance the visual quality of ultrasound images in comparison with non-contrast 3D echocardiography (3DE). Although the image quality in C3DE is perceived to be improved for visual analysis, however it actually deteriorates for the purpose of automatic or semi-automatic analysis due to higher speckle noise and intensity inhomogeneity. Therefore, the LV endocardial feature extraction and segmentation from the C3DE images remains a challenging problem.
  
  
  METHODS
  To address this challenge, this work proposes an adaptive pre-processing method to invert the appearance of C3DE image. The image inversion is based on an image intensity threshold value which is automatically estimated through image histogram analysis.
  
  
  RESULTS
  In the inverted appearance, the LV cavity appears dark while the myocardium appears bright thus making it similar in appearance to a 3DE image. Moreover, the resulting inverted image has high contrast and low noise appearance, yielding strong LV endocardium boundary and facilitating feature extraction for segmentation.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Our results demonstrate that the inverse appearance of contrast image enables the subsequent LV segmentation.
authors.affiliation: School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (SEECS), National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan. Electronic address: 12mscsashaheen@seecs.edu.pk.
authors.forename: Anjuman
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Shaheen
authors.affiliation: School of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science (SEECS), National University of Sciences & Technology (NUST), Islamabad, Pakistan; College of Computer Science and Information Technology (CCSIT), King Faisal University (KFU), Al Ahsa, Saudi Arabia. Electronic address: kashif.rajpoot@oxfordalumni.org.
authors.forename: Kashif
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Rajpoot
mesh_terms: D019560:Echocardiography, Three-Dimensional / Q000379:methods*; D005260:Female; D006352:Heart Ventricles / Q000000981:diagnostic imaging*; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000379:methods*; D008297:Male
keywords: 3D echocardiography; Contrast 3D echocardiography; Histogram analysis; Image inversion; LV segmentation