title: Empirical gradient threshold technique for automated segmentation across image modalities and cell lines.
abstract: New microscopy technologies are enabling image acquisition of terabyte-sized data sets consisting of hundreds of thousands of images. In order to retrieve and analyze the biological information in these large data sets, segmentation is needed to detect the regions containing cells or cell colonies. Our work with hundreds of large images (each 21,000×21,000 pixels) requires a segmentation method that: (1) yields high segmentation accuracy, (2) is applicable to multiple cell lines with various densities of cells and cell colonies, and several imaging modalities, (3) can process large data sets in a timely manner, (4) has a low memory footprint and (5) has a small number of user-set parameters that do not require adjustment during the segmentation of large image sets. None of the currently available segmentation methods meet all these requirements. Segmentation based on image gradient thresholding is fast and has a low memory footprint. However, existing techniques that automate the selection of the gradient image threshold do not work across image modalities, multiple cell lines, and a wide range of foreground/background densities (requirement 2) and all failed the requirement for robust parameters that do not require re-adjustment with time (requirement 5). We present a novel and empirically derived image gradient threshold selection method for separating foreground and background pixels in an image that meets all the requirements listed above. We quantify the difference between our approach and existing ones in terms of accuracy, execution speed, memory usage and number of adjustable parameters on a reference data set. This reference data set consists of 501 validation images with manually determined segmentations and image sizes ranging from 0.36 Megapixels to 850 Megapixels. It includes four different cell lines and two image modalities: phase contrast and fluorescent. Our new technique, called Empirical Gradient Threshold (EGT), is derived from this reference data set with a 10-fold cross-validation method. EGT segments cells or colonies with resulting Dice accuracy index measurements above 0.92 for all cross-validation data sets. EGT results has also been visually verified on a much larger data set that includes bright field and Differential Interference Contrast (DIC) images, 16 cell lines and 61 time-sequence data sets, for a total of 17,479 images. This method is implemented as an open-source plugin to ImageJ as well as a standalone executable that can be downloaded from the following link: https://isg.nist.gov/.
authors.affiliation: Information Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
authors.forename: J
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Chalfoun
authors.affiliation: Information Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Majurski
authors.affiliation: Information Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
authors.forename: A
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Peskin
authors.affiliation: Princeton University, Princeton, NJ 08544, USA.
authors.forename: C
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Breen
authors.affiliation: Information Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
authors.forename: P
authors.initials: P
authors.lastname: Bajcsy
authors.affiliation: Information Technology Laboratory, National Institute of Standards and Technology.
authors.forename: M
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Brady
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D002460:Cell Line; D066264:Datasets as Topic; D006801:Humans; D007091:Image Processing, Computer-Assisted / Q000295:instrumentation / Q000379:methods; D051379:Mice; D008856:Microscopy, Fluorescence / Q000379:methods; D008858:Microscopy, Phase-Contrast / Q000379:methods; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D009131:Muscle, Smooth, Vascular / Q000166:cytology; D032389:Myocytes, Smooth Muscle / Q000648:ultrastructure*; D041681:NIH 3T3 Cells; D039904:Pluripotent Stem Cells / Q000648:ultrastructure*
keywords: EGT; empirical model; open-source; robustness; scalability; segmentation