title: Neural development in the tardigrade Hypsibius dujardini based on anti-acetylated α-tubulin immunolabeling.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  The tardigrades (water bears) are a cosmopolitan group of microscopic ecdysozoans found in a variety of aquatic and temporarily wet environments. They are members of the Panarthropoda (Tardigrada + Onychophora + Arthropoda), although their exact position within this group remains contested. Studies of embryonic development in tardigrades have been scarce and have yielded contradictory data. Therefore, we investigated the development of the nervous system in embryos of the tardigrade Hypsibius dujardini using immunohistochemical techniques in conjunction with confocal laser scanning microscopy in an effort to gain insight into the evolution of the nervous system in panarthropods.
  
  
  RESULTS
  An antiserum against acetylated α-tubulin was used to visualize the axonal processes and general neuroanatomy in whole-mount embryos of the eutardigrade H. dujardini. Our data reveal that the tardigrade nervous system develops in an anterior-to-posterior gradient, beginning with the neural structures of the head. The brain develops as a dorsal, bilaterally symmetric structure and contains a single developing central neuropil. The stomodeal nervous system develops separately and includes at least four separate, ring-like commissures. A circumbuccal nerve ring arises late in development and innervates the circumoral sensory field. The segmental trunk ganglia likewise arise from anterior to posterior and establish links with each other via individual pioneering axons. Each hemiganglion is associated with a number of peripheral nerves, including a pair of leg nerves and a branched, dorsolateral nerve.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  The revealed pattern of brain development supports a single-segmented brain in tardigrades and challenges previous assignments of homology between tardigrade brain lobes and arthropod brain segments. Likewise, the tardigrade circumbuccal nerve ring cannot be homologized with the arthropod 'circumoral' nerve ring, suggesting that this structure is unique to tardigrades. Finally, we propose that the segmental ganglia of tardigrades and arthropods are homologous and, based on these data, favor a hypothesis that supports tardigrades as the sister group of arthropods.
authors.affiliation: Animal Evolution and Development, Institute of Biology, University of Leipzig, Talstraße 33, 04103 Leipzig, Germany ; Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, University of Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, D-34132 Kassel, Germany.
authors.forename: Vladimir
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Gross
authors.affiliation: Department of Zoology, Institute of Biology, University of Kassel, Heinrich-Plett-Str. 40, D-34132 Kassel, Germany.
authors.forename: Georg
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Mayer
keywords: Axonogenesis; Nervous system; Panarthropoda; Segmental ganglia; Tardigrada; Water bears