title: Association of parent-child relationships and executive functioning in South Asian adolescents.
abstract: OBJECTIVE
  It is known that some environmental variables can significantly affect the development of executive functions (EF). The primary aim of this study was to analyze whether some family conditions, such as the adolescent's perception of the quality of parent-child relationships and the socioeconomic status (SES; assessed according to education, occupational status, and income) are significantly associated with EF test scores.
  
  
  METHODS
  There were 370 Pakistani participants ranging in age 13 to 19 years who were selected and then individually administered the following tests taken from the Delis-Kaplan Executive Function System (D-KEFS): Trail Making Test (TMT), Design Fluency Test (DFT), Color Word Interference Test (CWIT), and Card Sorting Test (CST). In addition, a Parent-Child Relationship Scale (PCRS) also was administered.
  
  
  RESULTS
  Results showed that perceived "neglect" in the PCRS was negatively associated with the 4 EF test scores. Parents' education and SES were positively associated with 3 EF measures: DFT, CWIT, and CST. Further correlational analyses revealed that inhibition (as measured with the CWIT) and problem-solving ability (as measured with the CST) were significantly associated with the perceived parent-child relationships. Some gender differences also were observed: males outperformed females on TMT, DFT, and CST, while females outperformed males in the CWIT.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  It was concluded that perceived parent-child relationships, SES, and parents' education are significantly associated with executive function test performance during adolescents.
authors.affiliation: Department of Humanities and Social Sciences, COMSATS Institute of Information Technology.
authors.forename: Shameem
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Fatima
authors.affiliation: Department of Applied Psychology and Center for Clinical Psychology, University of the Punjab.
authors.forename: Hamid
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Sheikh
authors.affiliation: Communication Sciences and Disorders, Florida International University.
authors.forename: Alfredo
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Ardila
mesh_terms: D000293:Adolescent; D000328:Adult; D002648:Child; D056344:Executive Function; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D007266:Inhibition, Psychological; D008297:Male; D008875:Middle Aged; D009483:Neuropsychological Tests; D010154:Pakistan; D010287:Parent-Child Relations / Q000208:ethnology; D011340:Problem Solving; D012727:Sex Characteristics; D012923:Social Class; D014145:Trail Making Test