title: Optimization of a Novel Non-invasive Oral Sampling Technique for Zoonotic Pathogen Surveillance in Nonhuman Primates.
abstract: Free-ranging nonhuman primates are frequent sources of zoonotic pathogens due to their physiologic similarity and in many tropical regions, close contact with humans. Many high-risk disease transmission interfaces have not been monitored for zoonotic pathogens due to difficulties inherent to invasive sampling of free-ranging wildlife. Non-invasive surveillance of nonhuman primates for pathogens with high potential for spillover into humans is therefore critical for understanding disease ecology of existing zoonotic pathogen burdens and identifying communities where zoonotic diseases are likely to emerge in the future. We developed a non-invasive oral sampling technique using ropes distributed to nonhuman primates to target viruses shed in the oral cavity, which through bite wounds and discarded food, could be transmitted to people. Optimization was performed by testing paired rope and oral swabs from laboratory colony rhesus macaques for rhesus cytomegalovirus (RhCMV) and simian foamy virus (SFV) and implementing the technique with free-ranging terrestrial and arboreal nonhuman primate species in Uganda and Nepal. Both ubiquitous DNA and RNA viruses, RhCMV and SFV, were detected in oral samples collected from ropes distributed to laboratory colony macaques and SFV was detected in free-ranging macaques and olive baboons. Our study describes a technique that can be used for disease surveillance in free-ranging nonhuman primates and, potentially, other wildlife species when invasive sampling techniques may not be feasible.
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Tierra
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Smiley Evans
authors.affiliation: California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Peter A
authors.initials: PA
authors.lastname: Barry
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Kirsten V
authors.initials: KV
authors.lastname: Gilardi
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Tracey
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Goldstein
authors.affiliation: California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Jesse D
authors.initials: JD
authors.lastname: Deere
authors.affiliation: California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Joseph
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Fike
authors.affiliation: California National Primate Research Center, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: JoAnn
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Yee
authors.affiliation: Mountain Gorilla Veterinary Project, Inc, Kampala, Uganda.
authors.forename: Benard J
authors.initials: BJ
authors.lastname: Ssebide
authors.affiliation: Center for Molecular Dynamics Nepal, Kathmandu, Nepal.
authors.forename: Dibesh
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Karmacharya
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Michael R
authors.initials: MR
authors.lastname: Cranfield
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: David
authors.initials: D
authors.lastname: Wolking
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Brett
authors.initials: B
authors.lastname: Smith
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Jonna A K
authors.initials: JA
authors.lastname: Mazet
authors.affiliation: One Health Institute, University of California, Davis, Davis, California, United States of America.
authors.forename: Christine K
authors.initials: CK
authors.lastname: Johnson
mesh_terms: D000818:Animals; D062665:Epidemiological Monitoring / Q000662:veterinary*; D009055:Mouth / Q000821:virology; D009390:Nepal; D018419:Primate Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000821:virology*; D013048:Specimen Handling / Q000379:methods / Q000662:veterinary*; D014454:Uganda; D014773:Virology / Q000379:methods; D014777:Virus Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology / Q000662:veterinary*; D017201:Virus Shedding; D015047:Zoonoses / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000821:virology*