title: Designing optimal food intake patterns to achieve nutritional goals for Japanese adults through the use of linear programming optimization models.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  Simultaneous dietary achievement of a full set of nutritional recommendations is difficult. Diet optimization model using linear programming is a useful mathematical means of translating nutrient-based recommendations into realistic nutritionally-optimal food combinations incorporating local and culture-specific foods. We used this approach to explore optimal food intake patterns that meet the nutrient recommendations of the Dietary Reference Intakes (DRIs) while incorporating typical Japanese food selections.
  
  
  METHODS
  As observed intake values, we used the food and nutrient intake data of 92 women aged 31-69 years and 82 men aged 32-69 years living in three regions of Japan. Dietary data were collected with semi-weighed dietary record on four non-consecutive days in each season of the year (16 days total). The linear programming models were constructed to minimize the differences between observed and optimized food intake patterns while also meeting the DRIs for a set of 28 nutrients, setting energy equal to estimated requirements, and not exceeding typical quantities of each food consumed by each age (30-49 or 50-69 years) and gender group.
  
  
  RESULTS
  We successfully developed mathematically optimized food intake patterns that met the DRIs for all 28 nutrients studied in each sex and age group. Achieving nutritional goals required minor modifications of existing diets in older groups, particularly women, while major modifications were required to increase intake of fruit and vegetables in younger groups of both sexes. Across all sex and age groups, optimized food intake patterns demanded greatly increased intake of whole grains and reduced-fat dairy products in place of intake of refined grains and full-fat dairy products. Salt intake goals were the most difficult to achieve, requiring marked reduction of salt-containing seasoning (65-80%) in all sex and age groups.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  Using a linear programming model, we identified optimal food intake patterns providing practical food choices and meeting nutritional recommendations for Japanese populations. Dietary modifications from current eating habits required to fulfil nutritional goals differed by age: more marked increases in food volume were required in younger groups.
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Promotion, National Institute of Public Health, Saitama, Japan. okubo@niph.go.jp.
authors.forename: Hitomi
authors.initials: H
authors.lastname: Okubo
authors.affiliation: Department of Social and Preventive Epidemiology, School of Public Health, The University of Tokyo, Tokyo, Japan. stssasak@m.u-tokyo.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Satoshi
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Sasaki
authors.affiliation: Department of Nutrition, School of Human Cultures, University of Shiga Prefecture, Shiga, Japan. ken_t_ro@hotmail.com.
authors.forename: Kentaro
authors.initials: K
authors.lastname: Murakami
authors.affiliation: Department of Health Promotion, National Institute of Public Health, Saitama, Japan. tyokoya@niph.go.jp.
authors.forename: Tetsuji
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Yokoyama
authors.affiliation: Graduate School of Health Science, Matsumoto University, Nagano, Japan. naoko.hirota@matsu.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Naoko
authors.initials: N
authors.lastname: Hirota
authors.affiliation: Food Science and Nutrition Department, Tottori College, Tottori, Japan. akknt@ns.cygnus.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Akiko
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Notsu
authors.affiliation: Department of Statistics, Osaka City University Medical School, Osaka, Japan. fukui@med.osaka-cu.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Mitsuru
authors.initials: M
authors.lastname: Fukui
authors.affiliation: Department of Food Science and Nutrition, School of Human Science and Environment, University of Hyogo, Hyogo, Japan. chigusa@shse.u-hyogo.ac.jp.
authors.forename: Chigusa
authors.initials: C
authors.lastname: Date
mesh_terms: D000328:Adult; D000368:Aged; D044466:Asian People; D003611:Dairy Products; D002149:Energy Intake; D005247:Feeding Behavior; D005260:Female; D005638:Fruit; D006801:Humans; D007564:Japan; D008297:Male; D008460:Meat; D008875:Middle Aged; D008962:Models, Theoretical; D009749:Nutrition Surveys; D009752:Nutritional Status; D009753:Nutritive Value; D011382:Programming, Linear; D064167:Recommended Dietary Allowances; D012492:Salts / Q000008:administration & dosage; D014675:Vegetables; D000067348:Whole Grains
chemical_list: D012492:Salts