title: Infection and exposure to vector-borne pathogens in rural dogs and their ticks, Uganda.
abstract: BACKGROUND
  In rural parts of Africa, dogs live in close association with humans and livestock, roam freely, and usually do not receive prophylactic measures. Thus, they are a source of infectious disease for humans and for wildlife such as protected carnivores. In 2011, an epidemiological study was carried out around three conservation areas in Uganda to detect the presence and determine the prevalence of vector-borne pathogens in rural dogs and associated ticks to evaluate the risk that these pathogens pose to humans and wildlife.
  
  
  METHODS
  Serum samples (n = 105), blood smears (n = 43) and blood preserved on FTA cards (n = 38) and ticks (58 monospecific pools of Haemaphysalis leachi and Rhipicephalus praetextatus including 312 ticks from 52 dogs) were collected from dogs. Dog sera were tested by indirect immunofluorescence to detect the presence of antibodies against Rickettsia conorii and Ehrlichia canis. Antibodies against R. conorii were also examined by indirect enzyme immunoassay. Real time PCR for the detection of Rickettsia spp., Anaplasmataceae, Bartonella spp. and Babesia spp. was performed in DNA extracted from FTA cards and ticks.
  
  
  RESULTS
  99% of the dogs were seropositive to Rickettsia spp. and 29.5% to Ehrlichia spp. Molecular analyses revealed that 7.8% of the blood samples were infected with Babesia rossi, and all were negative for Rickettsia spp. and Ehrlichia spp. Ticks were infected with Rickettsia sp. (18.9%), including R. conorii and R. massiliae; Ehrlichia sp. (18.9%), including E. chaffeensis and Anaplasma platys; and B. rossi (1.7%). Bartonella spp. was not detected in any of the blood or tick samples.
  
  
  CONCLUSIONS
  This study confirms the presence of previously undetected vector-borne pathogens of humans and animals in East Africa. We recommend that dog owners in rural Uganda be advised to protect their animals against ectoparasites to prevent the transmission of pathogens to humans and wildlife.
authors.affiliation: Facultad de Ciencias Silvoagropecuarias, Universidad Mayor, Santiago, Chile. tatianaproboste@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Tatiana
authors.initials: T
authors.lastname: Proboste
authors.affiliation: Conservation Through Public Health, Plot 3 Mapera Lane, Uringi Crescent, Entebbe, Uganda. gladys@ctph.org.
authors.forename: Gladys
authors.initials: G
authors.lastname: Kalema-Zikusoka
authors.affiliation: VetGenomics, Autonomous University of Barcelona, Cerdanyola, 08193, Barcelona, Spain. laura.altet@vetgenomics.com.
authors.forename: Laura
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Altet
authors.affiliation: Departament de Medicina i Cirurgia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola, 08193, Barcelona, Spain. lsolano@quiro.uab.es.
authors.forename: Laia
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Solano-Gallego
authors.affiliation: Health & Biotechnology (SaBio) Group, IREC (CSIC-UCLM- JCCM), Ronda de Toledo s/n, Ciudad Real, 13005, Spain. mariaisabel.garcia@uclm.es.
authors.forename: Isabel G
authors.initials: IG
authors.lastname: Fernández de Mera
authors.affiliation: Camino del Rosario P5, Peñaflor, Santiago, Chile. andrea.chirife@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Andrea D
authors.initials: AD
authors.lastname: Chirife
authors.affiliation: Andorra Veterinary Services, Government of Andorra, Andorra La Vella, Andorra. jesusmuro@andorra.ad.
authors.forename: Jesús
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Muro
authors.affiliation: Servei d'Hematologia Clinica Veterinaria (SHCV), Departament de Medicina i Cirurgia Animals, Facultat de Veterinaria, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola, 08193, Barcelona, Spain. ester.bach@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Ester
authors.initials: E
authors.lastname: Bach
authors.affiliation: Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129, Palermo, Italy. ninipiazza@hotmail.it.
authors.forename: Antonio
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Piazza
authors.affiliation: Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Andres Bello, Republica 252, Santiago, Chile. aitorcevi@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Aitor
authors.initials: A
authors.lastname: Cevidanes
authors.affiliation: Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129, Palermo, Italy. valeria.blanda@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Valeria
authors.initials: V
authors.lastname: Blanda
authors.affiliation: College of Veterinary Medicine, Animal Resources and Biosecurity, Makerere University, Kampala, 7062, Uganda. mugishalaw@gmail.com.|Conservation & Ecosystem Health Alliance (CEHA), Kampala, 34153, Uganda. mugishalaw@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Lawrence
authors.initials: L
authors.lastname: Mugisha
authors.affiliation: Departament de Medicina i Cirurgia Animals, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola, 08193, Barcelona, Spain. josedelafuente@yahoo.com.|Department of Veterinary Pathobiology, Center for Veterinary Health Sciences, Oklahoma State University, Stillwater, 74078, OK, USA. josedelafuente@yahoo.com.
authors.forename: José
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: de la Fuente
authors.affiliation: Istituto Zooprofilattico Sperimentale della Sicilia, via Gino Marinuzzi 3, 90129, Palermo, Italy. santo.caracappa@gmail.com.
authors.forename: Santo
authors.initials: S
authors.lastname: Caracappa
authors.affiliation: Facultad de Ecología y Recursos Naturales, Universidad Andres Bello, Republica 252, Santiago, Chile. syngamustrachea@hotmail.com.
authors.forename: Javier
authors.initials: J
authors.lastname: Millán
mesh_terms: D000709:Anaplasma / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D000818:Animals; D001403:Babesia / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D001473:Bartonella / Q000235:genetics / Q000302:isolation & purification; D001483:Base Sequence; D004283:Dog Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000382:microbiology / Q000469:parasitology; D004285:Dogs; D004536:Ehrlichia / Q000276:immunology / Q000302:isolation & purification; D005260:Female; D006801:Humans; D026863:Ixodidae / Q000382:microbiology / Q000469:parasitology; D008297:Male; D008969:Molecular Sequence Data; D015995:Prevalence; D012281:Rickettsia / Q000276:immunology / Q000302:isolation & purification; D013984:Tick Infestations / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000469:parasitology / Q000517:prevention & control; D017282:Tick-Borne Diseases / Q000453:epidemiology* / Q000382:microbiology / Q000469:parasitology; D014454:Uganda / Q000453:epidemiology